Oracle® Database

Advanced Security Guide

12.1

E50333-09

May 2015

Oracle Database Advanced Security Guide, 12.1

E50333-09

Copyright © 1996, 2015, Oracle and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved.

Primary Author: Patricia Huey

Contributors: Rahil Mir, Paul Youn, Adam Lee, Preetam Ramakrishna, Gopal Mulagund, Rajbir Chahal, Min-Hank Ho, Michael Hwa, Sudha Iyer, Adam Lindsey, Supriya Kalyanasundaram, Lakshmi Kethana, Andrew Koyfman, Vikram Pesati, Andy Philips, Philip Thornton, Paul Needham, Peter Wahl

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Contents

Preface

- Audience

- Documentation Accessibility

- Related Documents

- Conventions

Changes in This Release for Oracle Database Advanced Security Guide

- Changes in Oracle Database Advanced Security 12c Release 1 (12.1.0.2)

- New Features

- Changes in Oracle Database Advanced Security 12c Release 1 (12.1.0.1)

- New Features

- Deprecated Features

- Other Changes

1 Introduction to Oracle Advanced Security

- Transparent Data Encryption

- Oracle Data Redaction

Part I Using Transparent Data Encryption

2 Introduction to Transparent Data Encryption

- What Is Transparent Data Encryption?

- Benefits of Using Transparent Data Encryption

- Who Can Configure Transparent Data Encryption?

- Types and Components of Transparent Data Encryption

- About Transparent Data Encryption Types and Components

- How Transparent Data Encryption Column Encryption Works

- How Transparent Data Encryption Tablespace Encryption Works

- How the Keystore for the Storage of TDE Master Encryption Keys Works

- Supported Encryption and Integrity Algorithms

3 Configuring Transparent Data Encryption

- Configuring a Software Keystore

- About Configuring a Software Keystore

- Step 1: Set the Software Keystore Location in the sqlnet.ora File

- Step 2: Create the Software Keystore

- Step 3: Open the Software Keystore

- Step 4: Set the Software TDE Master Encryption Key

- Step 5: Encrypt Your Data

- Configuring a Hardware Keystore

- About Configuring a Hardware Keystore

- Step 1: Set the Hardware Keystore Type in the sqlnet.ora File

- Step 2: Configure the Hardware Security Module

- Step 3: Open the Hardware Keystore

- Step 4: Set the Hardware Keystore TDE Master Encryption Key

- Step 5: Encrypt Your Data

- Encrypting Columns in Tables

- About Encrypting Columns in Tables

- Data Types That Can Be Encrypted with TDE Column Encryption

- Restrictions on Using Transparent Data Encryption Column Encryption

- Creating Tables with Encrypted Columns

- Encrypting Columns in Existing Tables

- Creating an Index on an Encrypted Column

- Adding Salt to an Encrypted Column

- Removing Salt from an Encrypted Column

- Changing the Encryption Key or Algorithm for Tables Containing Encrypted Columns

- Encrypting Tablespaces

- Restrictions on Using Transparent Data Encryption Tablespace Encryption

- Step 1: Set the COMPATIBLE Initialization Parameter for Tablespace Encryption

- Step 2: Set the Tablespace TDE Master Encryption Key

- Step 3: Create the Encrypted Tablespace

- Transparent Data Encryption Data Dynamic and Data Dictionary Views

4 Managing the Keystore and the TDE Master Encryption Key

- Managing the Keystore

- Changing the Password of a Password-Based Software Keystore

- Changing the Password of a Hardware Keystore

- Backing Up Password-Based Software Keystores

- Backups of the Hardware Keystore

- Merging Software Keystores

- Moving a Software Keystore to a New Location

- Migrating a Software Password Keystore to a Hardware Keystore and Vice Versa

- Migration of Keystores to and from Oracle Key Vault

- Closing a Keystore

- Using a Software Keystore That Resides on Automatic Storage Management Volumes

- Backup and Recovery of Encrypted Data

- Deletion of Keystores

- Managing the TDE Master Encryption Key

- Creating TDE Master Encryption Keys for Later Use

- Activation of TDE Master Encryption Keys

- TDE Master Encryption Key Attribute Management

- Creating Custom TDE Master Encryption Key Attributes for Reporting Purposes

- Setting and Resetting the TDE Master Encryption Key in the Keystore

- Exporting and Importing the TDE Master Encryption Key

- Management of TDE Master Encryption Keys Using Oracle Key Vault

- Storing Secrets Used by Oracle Database

- About Storing Oracle Database Secrets in a Keystore

- Storage of Oracle Database Secrets in a Software Keystore

- Example: Adding an HSM Password to a Software Keystore

- Example: Changing an HSM Password That Is Stored as a Secret in a Software Keystore

- Example: Deleting an HSM Password That Is Stored as a Secret in a Software Keystore

- Storage of Oracle Database Secrets in a Hardware Keystore

- Example: Adding an Oracle Database Secret to a Hardware Keystore

- Example: Changing an Oracle Database Secret in a Hardware Keystore

- Example: Deleting an Oracle Database Secret in a Hardware Keystore

- Configuring Auto-Login Hardware Security Modules

- Storing Oracle GoldenGate Secrets in a Keystore

- About Storing Oracle GoldenGate Secrets in Keystores

- Requirements for Capturing TDE in Oracle GoldenGate Extract Classic Capture Mode

- Configuring Transparent Data Encryption Keystore Support for Oracle GoldenGate

5 General Considerations of Using Transparent Data Encryption

- Compression and Data Deduplication of Encrypted Data

- Security Considerations for Transparent Data Encryption

- Transparent Data Encryption General Security Advice

- Transparent Data Encryption Column Encryption-Specific Advice

- Managing Security for Plaintext Fragments

- Performance and Storage Overhead of Transparent Data Encryption

- Performance Overhead of Transparent Data Encryption

- Storage Overhead of Transparent Data Encryption

- Modifying Your Applications for Use with Transparent Data Encryption

- How ALTER SYSTEM and orapki Map to ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT

- Using Transparent Data Encryption with PKI Encryption

- Software Master Encryption Key Use with PKI Key Pairs

- Transparent Data Encryption Tablespace and Hardware Keystores with PKI Encryption

- Backup and Recovery of a PKI Key Pair

6 Using Transparent Data Encryption with Other Oracle Features

- How Transparent Data Encryption Works with Export and Import Operations

- About Exporting and Importing Encrypted Data

- Exporting and Importing Tables with Encrypted Columns

- Using Oracle Data Pump to Encrypt Entire Dump Sets

- How Transparent Data Encryption Works with Oracle Data Guard

- How Transparent Data Encryption Works with Oracle Real Application Clusters

- About Using Transparent Data Encryption with Oracle Real Application Clusters

- Using a Non-Shared File System to Store a Software Keystore in Oracle RAC

- How Transparent Data Encryption Works with SecureFiles

- Example: Creating a SecureFiles LOB with a Specific Encryption Algorithm

- Example: Creating a SecureFiles LOB with a Column Password Specified

- How Transparent Data Encryption Works in a Multitenant Environment

- About Using Transparent Data Encryption in a Multitenant Environment

- Operations That Must Be Performed in Root

- Operations That Can Be Performed in Root or in a PDB

- Exporting and Importing TDE Master Encryption Keys for a PDB

- Unplugging and Plugging a PDB with Encrypted Data in a CDB

- How Open and Close Operations for a Keystore Work in a Multitenant Environment

- Finding the Keystore Status for All of the PDBs in a Multitenant Environment

- How Transparent Data Encryption Works with Oracle Call Interface

- How Transparent Data Encryption Works with Editions

- Configuring Transparent Data Encryption to Work in a Multidatabase Environment

7 Frequently Asked Questions About Transparent Data Encryption

- Transparency Questions About Transparent Data Encryption

- Performance Questions About Transparent Data Encryption

Part II Using Oracle Data Redaction

8 Introduction to Oracle Data Redaction

- What Is Oracle Data Redaction?

- When to Use Oracle Data Redaction

- Benefits of Using Oracle Data Redaction

- Target Use Cases for Oracle Data Redaction

- Oracle Data Redaction Use with Database Applications

- Considerations When Using Oracle Data Redaction with Ad Hoc Database Queries

9 Oracle Data Redaction Features and Capabilities

- Full Data Redaction to Redact All Data

- Partial Data Redaction to Redact Sections of Data

- Regular Expressions to Redact Patterns of Data

- Random Data Redaction to Generate Random Values

- Comparison of Full, Partial, and Random Redaction Based on Data Types

- Redaction Capabilities for Oracle Built-in Data Types

- Redaction Capabilities for the ANSI Data Types

- Redaction Capabilities for the User Defined Data Types or Oracle Supplied Types

- No Redaction for Testing Purposes

10 Configuring Oracle Data Redaction Policies

- About Oracle Data Redaction Policies

- Who Can Create Oracle Data Redaction Policies?

- Planning an Oracle Data Redaction Policy

- General Syntax of the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY Procedure

- Using Expressions to Define Conditions for Data Redaction Policies

- About Using Expressions in Data Redaction Policies

- Applying the Redaction Policy Based on User Environment

- Applying the Redaction Policy Based on Database Roles

- Applying the Redaction Policy Based on Oracle Label Security Label Dominance

- Applying the Redaction Policy Based on Oracle Application Express Session States

- Applying the Redaction Policy to All Users

- Creating a Full Redaction Policy and Altering the Full Redaction Value

- Creating a Full Redaction Policy

- Altering the Default Full Data Redaction Value

- Creating a Partial Redaction Policy

- About Creating Partial Redaction Policies

- Syntax for Creating a Partial Redaction Policy

- Creating Partial Redaction Policies Using Fixed Character Formats

- Creating Partial Redaction Policies Using Character Data Types

- Creating Partial Redaction Policies Using Number Data Types

- Creating Partial Redaction Policies Using Date-Time Data Types

- Creating a Regular Expression-Based Redaction Policy

- About Creating Regular Expression-Based Redaction Policies

- Syntax for Creating a Regular Expression-Based Redaction Policy

- Regular Expression-Based Redaction Policies Using Formats

- Custom Regular Expression Redaction Policies

- Creating a Random Redaction Policy

- Syntax for Creating a Random Redaction Policy

- Example: Random Redaction Policy

- Creating a Policy That Uses No Redaction

- Syntax for Creating a Policy with No Redaction

- Example: Performing No Redaction

- Exemption of Users from Oracle Data Redaction Policies

- Altering an Oracle Data Redaction Policy

- About Altering Oracle Data Redaction Policies

- Syntax for the DBMS_REDACT.ALTER_POLICY Procedure

- Parameters Required for DBMS_REDACT.ALTER_POLICY Actions

- Tutorial: Altering an Oracle Data Redaction Policy

- Redacting Multiple Columns

- Adding Columns to a Data Redaction Policy for a Single Table or View

- Example: Redacting Multiple Columns

- Disabling and Enabling an Oracle Data Redaction Policy

- Disabling an Oracle Data Redaction Policy

- Enabling an Oracle Data Redaction Policy

- Dropping an Oracle Data Redaction Policy

- Tutorial: How Oracle Data Redaction Affects Tables and Views

- Tutorial: SQL Expressions to Build Reports with Redacted Values

- Oracle Data Redaction Policy Data Dictionary Views

11 Using Oracle Data Redaction in Oracle Enterprise Manager

- About Using Oracle Data Redaction in Oracle Enterprise Manager

- Oracle Data Redaction Workflow

- Management of Sensitive Column Types in Enterprise Manager

- Managing Oracle Data Redaction Formats Using Enterprise Manager

- About Managing Oracle Data Redaction Formats Using Enterprise Manager

- Creating a Custom Oracle Data Redaction Format

- Editing a Custom Oracle Data Redaction Format

- Viewing Oracle Data Redaction Formats

- Deleting a Custom Oracle Data Redaction Format

- Managing Oracle Data Redaction Policies Using Enterprise Manager

- About Managing Oracle Data Redaction Policies Using Enterprise Manager

- Creating an Oracle Data Redaction Policy Using Enterprise Manager

- Editing an Oracle Data Redaction Policy Using Enterprise Manager

- Viewing the Details of an Oracle Data Redaction Policy Using Enterprise Manager

- Enabling or Disabling an Oracle Data Redaction Policy Using Enterprise Manager

- Deleting an Oracle Data Redaction Policy Using Enterprise Manager

12 Oracle Data Redaction Use with Oracle Database Features

- Oracle Data Redaction and DML and DDL Operations

- Oracle Data Redaction and Nested Functions, Inline Views, and the WHERE Clause

- Oracle Data Redaction and Aggregate Functions

- Oracle Data Redaction and Object Types

- Oracle Data Redaction and XML Generation

- Oracle Data Redaction and Editions

- Oracle Data Redaction in a Multitenant Environment

- Oracle Data Redaction and Oracle Virtual Private Database

- Oracle Data Redaction and Oracle Database Real Application Security

- Oracle Data Redaction and Oracle Database Vault

- Oracle Data Redaction and Oracle Data Pump

- Oracle Data Pump Security Model for Oracle Data Redaction

- Export of Objects That Have Oracle Data Redaction Policies Defined

- Export of Data Using the EXPDP Utility access_method Parameter

- Import of Data into Objects Protected by Oracle Data Redaction

- Oracle Data Redaction and Data Masking and Subsetting Pack

13 Security Considerations for Using Oracle Data Redaction

- Oracle Data Redaction General Usage Guidelines

- Restriction of Administrative Access to Oracle Data Redaction Policies

- How Oracle Data Redaction Affects the SYS, SYSTEM, and Default Schemas

- Policy Expressions That Use SYS_CONTEXT Attributes

- Oracle Data Redaction Policies on Materialized Views

- Dropped Oracle Data Redaction Policies When the Recycle Bin Is Enabled

Glossary

Index

Preface

Welcome to Oracle Database Advanced Security Guide for the 12g Release 1 (12.1) of Oracle Advanced Security. This guide describes how to implement, configure, and administer Oracle Advanced Security.

This preface contains:

- Audience

- Documentation Accessibility

- Related Documents

- Conventions

Audience

Oracle Database Advanced Security Guide is intended for users and systems professionals involved with the implementation, configuration, and administration of Oracle Advanced Security including:

- Implementation consultants

- System administrators

- Security administrators

- Database administrators (DBAs)

Documentation Accessibility

For information about Oracle's commitment to accessibility, visit the Oracle Accessibility Program website at http://www.oracle.com/pls/topic/lookup?ctx=acc&id=docacc.

Access to Oracle Support

Oracle customers have access to electronic support through My Oracle Support. For information, visit http://www.oracle.com/pls/topic/lookup?ctx=acc&id=info or visit http://www.oracle.com/pls/topic/lookup?ctx=acc&id=trs if you are hearing impaired.

Related Documents

For more information, see these Oracle resources:

- Oracle Database Administrator's Guide

- Oracle Database Security Guide

Many books in the documentation set use the sample schemas of the default database. Refer to Oracle Database Sample Schemas for information about how these schemas were created and how you can use them.

To download free release notes, installation documentation, white papers, or other collateral, visit the Oracle Technology Network (OTN). You must register online before using OTN; registration is free and can be done at

http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/index.html

If you already have a user name and password for OTN, then you can go directly to the documentation section of the OTN website at

http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/documentation/index.html

Conventions

The following text conventions are used in this document:

Convention

Meaning

boldface

Boldface type indicates graphical user interface elements associated with an action, or terms defined in text or the glossary.

italic

Italic type indicates book titles, emphasis, or placeholder variables for which you supply particular values.

monospace

Monospace type indicates commands within a paragraph, URLs, code in examples, text that appears on the screen, or text that you enter.

Changes in This Release for Oracle Database Advanced Security Guide

Oracle Database Advanced Security Guide has had changes in both Oracle Database Release 1 (12.1.0.1) and Release 1 (12.1.0.2).

- Changes in Oracle Database Advanced Security 12c Release 1 (12.1.0.2)

- Changes in Oracle Database Advanced Security 12c Release 1 (12.1.0.1)

Changes in Oracle Database Advanced Security 12c Release 1 (12.1.0.2)

The following are changes in Oracle Database Advanced Security Guide for Oracle Database 12c Release 1 (12.1.0.2).

- New Features

New Features

The following features are new to this release:

- Support for OLS_LABEL_DOMINATES in Data Redaction Policies

- Support for Oracle Key Vault for Keystore and Encryption Key Management

Support for OLS_LABEL_DOMINATES in Data Redaction Policies

Starting with this release, you can use the public standalone function OLS_LABEL_DOMINATES in Oracle Data Redaction policies. This function replaces the SA_UTL.DOMINATES function that takes VARCHAR2 datatype values as input.

See "Applying the Redaction Policy Based on Oracle Label Security Label Dominance" for more information.

Support for Oracle Key Vault for Keystore and Encryption Key Management

Oracle Key Vault enables you to centralize the management of software keystores and TDE encryption keys, as well as other security objects (Java keystores (JKS)), Java Cryptography Extension (JCEKS) keystores, and credential files) across the enterprise.

See Oracle Key Vault Administrator's Guide for more information

Changes in Oracle Database Advanced Security 12c Release 1 (12.1.0.1)

The following are changes in Oracle Database Advanced Security Guide for Oracle Database 12c Release 1 (12.1.0.1).

- New Features

- Deprecated Features

- Other Changes

New Features

The following features are new in this release:

- New Keystore and Keystore Management functionality for Transparent Data Encryption and Other Database Components

- New Administrative Privilege for Transparent Data Encryption

- Oracle Data Redaction for Limiting Access to Sensitive Data

New Keystore and Keystore Management functionality for Transparent Data Encryption and Other Database Components

Oracle Database 12c Release 1 (12.1) introduces a unified key management interface for Transparent Data Encryption (TDE) and other database components. This eases key administration tasks, provides for better compliance and tracking, and improves separation of duty between the database administrator and security administrator.

You now can perform all of the key and keystore management commands by using the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement instead of the mkstore or orapki command-line utility, Oracle Wallet Manager utility, and ALTER SYSTEM statement.

See Introduction to Transparent Data Encryption.

New Administrative Privilege for Transparent Data Encryption

For better security and separation of duties, you now can grant the SYSKM administrative privilege to users who are responsible for managing Transparent Data Encryption.

See Introduction to Transparent Data Encryption.

Oracle Data Redaction for Limiting Access to Sensitive Data

Oracle Data Redaction (Data Redaction) gives you the ability to disguise (mask) data from low-privileged users or applications.

For example, suppose you have the following credit card numbers:

- 5105 1051 0510 5100

- 5111 1111 1111 1118

- 5454 5454 5454 5454

You can use Data Redaction to disguise the first 12 digits as follows:

- **** **** **** 5100

- **** **** **** 1118

- **** **** **** 5454

The data is redacted at runtime, that is, it is hidden when the user accesses the page containing the data, but it is not hidden in the database. This enables the sensitive data to be processed normally, and it preserves the back-end referential integrity and constraints for the data. You have the option of redacting the data partially so that some of the original data is preserved (such as the last 4 digits of a credit card number), entirely by replacing it with a fixed value, or by replacing the data with an encrypted value. You also can apply Oracle Data Redaction policies throughout the databases in your enterprise.

See Introduction to Oracle Data Redaction for more information.

Deprecated Features

The following feature is deprecated:

- The Use of PKI to Manage Transparent Data Encryption Keys

The Use of PKI to Manage Transparent Data Encryption Keys

The use of PKI for managing Transparent Data Encryption keys is deprecated. Instead, use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SQL statement to manage Transparent Data Encryption keys.

See the following sections for more information:

- Using Transparent Data Encryption

- "Using Transparent Data Encryption with PKI Encryption"

Other Changes

Oracle Advanced Security has been repackaged for greater availability. The following strong authentication features are now no longer part of Oracle Advanced Security and are provided with the default Oracle Database installation.

- Thin JDBC Client Network support

- RADIUS authentication

- Kerberos authentication

- Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) authentication

- Multiple authentication support

For detailed information about these features, see Oracle Database Security Guide.

The following features are part of Oracle Advanced Security and are covered in this guide:

- Transparent Data Encryption

- Oracle Data Redaction

As part of this change, this guide has been renamed to Oracle Database Advanced Security Guide. In previous releases, it was Oracle Database Advanced Security Administrator's Guide.

1 Introduction to Oracle Advanced Security

Two features comprise Oracle Advanced Security: Transparent Data Encryption and Oracle Data Redaction.

Topics:

- Transparent Data Encryption

- Oracle Data Redaction

Transparent Data Encryption

Transparent Data Encryption (TDE) enables you to encrypt data so that only an authorized recipient can read it.

Use encryption to protect sensitive data in a potentially unprotected environment, such as data you placed on backup media that is sent to an off-site storage location. You can encrypt individual columns in a database table, or you can encrypt an entire tablespace.

To use Transparent Data Encryption, you do not need to modify your applications. TDE enables your applications to continue working seamlessly as before. It automatically encrypts data when it is written to disk, and then automatically decrypts the data when your applications access it. Key management is built-in, eliminating the complex task of managing and securing encryption keys.

Using Transparent Data Encryption discusses Transparent Data Encryption.

Oracle Data Redaction

Oracle Data Redaction enables you to redact (mask) column data, using full redaction, partial redaction, regular expressions, and random redaction. You can create policies that perform no redaction as well, for testing purposes.

The types of redaction that you can perform are as follows:

- Full redaction. You redact all of the contents of the column data. The redacted value that is returned to the querying user depends on the data type of the column. For example, columns of the NUMBER data type are redacted with a zero (0) and character data types are redacted with a blank space.

- Partial redaction. You redact a portion of the column data. For example, you can redact most of a Social Security number with asterisks (*), except for the last 4 digits.

- Regular expressions. You can use regular expressions in both full and partial redaction. This enables you to redact data based on a search pattern for the data. For example, you can use regular expressions to redact specific phone numbers or email addresses in your data.

- Random redaction. The redacted data presented to the querying user appears as randomly generated values each time it is displayed, depending on the data type of the column.

- No redaction. This option enables you to test the internal operation of your redaction policies, with no effect on the results of queries against tables with policies defined on them. You can use this option to test the redaction policy definitions before applying them to a production environment.

Data Redaction performs the redaction at runtime, that is, the moment that the user tries to view the data. This functionality is ideally suited for dynamic production systems in which data constantly changes. While the data is being redacted, Oracle Database is able to process all of the data normally and to preserve the back-end referential integrity constraints. Data redaction can help you to comply with industry regulations such as Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) and the Sarbanes-Oxley Act.

Using Oracle Data Redaction discusses Oracle Data Redaction.

Part I Using Transparent Data Encryption

Part I describes how to use Transparent Data Encryption.

Topics:

- Introduction to Transparent Data Encryption

- Configuring Transparent Data Encryption

- Managing the Keystore and the TDE Master Encryption Key

- General Considerations of Using Transparent Data Encryption

- Using Transparent Data Encryption with Other Oracle Features

2 Introduction to Transparent Data Encryption

Transparent Data Encryption enables you to encrypt data. Typically, you encrypt sensitive data, such as credit card numbers or Social Security numbers.

Topics:

- What Is Transparent Data Encryption?

- Benefits of Using Transparent Data Encryption

- Who Can Configure Transparent Data Encryption?

- Types and Components of Transparent Data Encryption

What Is Transparent Data Encryption?

Transparent Data Encryption (TDE) enables you to encrypt sensitive data, such as Personally Identifiable Information (PII), that you store in tables and tablespaces.

After the data is encrypted, this data is transparently decrypted for authorized users or applications when they access this data. TDE helps protect data stored on media (also called data at rest) in the event that the storage media or data file is stolen.

Oracle Database uses authentication, authorization, and auditing mechanisms to secure data in the database, but not in the operating system data files where data is stored. To protect these data files, Oracle Database provides Transparent Data Encryption (TDE). TDE encrypts sensitive data stored in data files. To prevent unauthorized decryption, TDE stores the encryption keys in a security module external to the database, called a keystore.

You can configure Oracle Key Vault as part of the TDE implementation. This enables you to centrally manage TDE keystores (called TDE wallets in Oracle Key Vault) in your enterprise. For example, you can upload a software keystore to Oracle Key Vault and then make the contents of this keystore available to other TDE-enabled databases. See Oracle Key Vault Administrator's Guide for more information.

Benefits of Using Transparent Data Encryption

Transparent Data Encryption (TDE) provides benefits that enable you to ensure that sensitive data is encrypted, meets compliance, and provides functionality that streamlines your day-to-day encryption operations.

Benefits are as follows:

- As a security administrator, you can be sure that sensitive data is encrypted and therefore safe in the event that the storage media or data file is stolen.

- Using TDE helps you address security-related regulatory compliance issues.

- You do not need to create auxiliary tables, triggers, or views to decrypt data for the authorized user or application. Data from tables is transparently decrypted for the database user and application. An application that processes sensitive data can use TDE to provide strong data encryption with little or no change to the application.

- Data is transparently decrypted for database users and applications that access this data. Database users and applications do not need to be aware that the data they are accessing is stored in encrypted form.

- You can encrypt data with zero downtime on production systems by using online table redefinition or you can encrypt it offline during maintenance periods. (See Oracle Database Administrator's Guide for more information about online table redefinition.)

- You do not need to modify your applications to handle the encrypted data. The database manages the data encryption and decryption.

- Oracle Database automates TDE master encryption key and keystore management operations. The user or application does not need to manage TDE master encryption keys.

Who Can Configure Transparent Data Encryption?

Before you can create and manage keystores and encryption keys, you must be granted the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT system privilege, which you can use for most operations when the database is open.

If you must open the keystore at the mount stage, then you must be granted the SYSKM administrative privilege, which includes the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT system privilege and other necessary privileges.

When you grant the SYSKM administrative privilege to a user, ensure that you create a password file for it so that the user can connect to the database as SYSKM using a password. This enables the user to perform actions such as querying the V$DATABASE view.

To configure TDE column or tablespace encryption, you do not need the SYSKM or ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT privileges. You must have the following additional privileges to create TDE policies on tables and tablespaces:

- CREATE TABLE

- ALTER TABLE

- CREATE TABLESPACE

See Also:

- Oracle Database Security Guide for more information about the SYSKM administrative privilege

- Oracle Database Administrator's Guide for more information about creating a password file for the SYSKM administrative privilege

Types and Components of Transparent Data Encryption

Transparent Data Encryption can be applied to individual columns or entire tablespaces.

Topics:

- About Transparent Data Encryption Types and Components

- How Transparent Data Encryption Column Encryption Works

- How Transparent Data Encryption Tablespace Encryption Works

- How the Keystore for the Storage of TDE Master Encryption Keys Works

- Supported Encryption and Integrity Algorithms

About Transparent Data Encryption Types and Components

Transparent Data Encryption (TDE) column encryption enables you to encrypt sensitive data stored in selected table columns. TDE tablespace encryption enables you to encrypt all of the data stored in a tablespace.

Both TDE column encryption and TDE tablespace encryption use a two-tiered key-based architecture. Unauthorized users, such as intruders who are attempting security attacks, cannot read the data from storage and back up media unless they have the TDE master encryption key to decrypt it.

How Transparent Data Encryption Column Encryption Works

Transparent Data Encryption (TDE) column encryption protects confidential data, such as credit card and Social Security numbers, that is stored in table columns.

TDE column encryption uses the two-tiered key-based architecture to transparently encrypt and decrypt sensitive table columns. The TDE master encryption key is stored in an external security module, which can be an Oracle software keystore or hardware keystore. This TDE master encryption key encrypts and decrypts the TDE table key, which in turn encrypts and decrypts data in the table column.

Figure 2-1 an overview of the TDE column encryption process.

Figure 2-1 TDE Column Encryption Overview

As shown in Figure 2-1, the TDE master encryption key is stored in an external security module that is outside of the database and accessible only to a user who was granted the appropriate privileges. For this external security module, Oracle Database uses an Oracle software keystore (wallet, in previous releases) or hardware security module (HSM) keystore. Storing the TDE master encryption key in this way prevents its unauthorized use.

Using an external security module separates ordinary program functions from encryption operations, making it possible to assign separate, distinct duties to database administrators and security administrators. Security is enhanced because the keystore password can be unknown to the database administrator, requiring the security administrator to provide the password.

When a table contains encrypted columns, TDE uses a single TDE table key regardless of the number of encrypted columns. Each TDE table key is individually encrypted with the TDE master encryption key. All of the TDE table keys are located together in the colklc column of the ENC$ data dictionary table. No keys are stored in plaintext.

How Transparent Data Encryption Tablespace Encryption Works

Transparent Data Encryption (TDE) tablespace encryption enables you to encrypt an entire tablespace.

All of the objects that are created in the encrypted tablespace are automatically encrypted. TDE tablespace encryption is useful if your tables contain sensitive data in multiple columns, or if you want to protect the entire table and not just individual columns. You do not need to perform a granular analysis of each table column to determine the columns that need encryption.

In addition, TDE tablespace encryption takes advantage of bulk encryption and caching to provide enhanced performance. The actual performance impact on applications can vary.

TDE tablespace encryption encrypts all of the data stored in an encrypted tablespace including its redo data. TDE tablespace encryption does not encrypt data that is stored outside of the tablespace. For example, BFILE data is not encrypted because it is stored outside the database. If you create a table with a BFILE column in an encrypted tablespace, then this particular column will not be encrypted.

All of the data in an encrypted tablespace is stored in encrypted format on the disk. Data is transparently decrypted for an authorized user having the necessary privileges to view or modify the data. A database user or application does not need to know if the data in a particular table is encrypted on the disk. In the event that the data files on a disk or backup media is stolen, the data is not compromised.

TDE tablespace encryption uses the two-tiered, key-based architecture to transparently encrypt (and decrypt) tablespaces. The TDE master encryption key is stored in an external security module (software or hardware keystore). This TDE master encryption key is used to encrypt the TDE tablespace encryption key, which in turn is used to encrypt and decrypt data in the tablespace.

Figure 2-2 shows an overview of the TDE tablespace encryption process.

Figure 2-2 TDE Tablespace Encryption

Note:

The encrypted data is protected during operations such as JOIN and SORT. This means that the data is safe when it is moved to temporary tablespaces. Data in undo and redo logs is also protected.

TDE tablespace encryption also allows index range scans on data in encrypted tablespaces. This is not possible with TDE column encryption.

Oracle Database implements the following features to TDE tablespace encryption:

- It uses a unified TDE master encryption key for both TDE column encryption and TDE tablespace encryption.

- You can reset the unified TDE master encryption key. This provides enhanced security and helps meet security and compliance requirements.

How the Keystore for the Storage of TDE Master Encryption Keys Works

To control the encryption, you use a keystore and TDE master encryption key.

Topics:

- About the Keystore Storage of TDE Master Encryption Keys

- Benefits of the Keystore Storage Framework

- Types of Keystores

About the Keystore Storage of TDE Master Encryption Keys

Oracle Database provides a key management framework for Transparent Data Encryption that stores and manages keys and credentials.

The key management framework includes the keystore to securely store the TDE master encryption keys and the management framework to securely and efficiently manage keystore and key operations for various database components.

The Oracle keystore stores a history of retired TDE master encryption keys, which enables you to change them and still be able to decrypt data that was encrypted under an earlier TDE master encryption key.

Benefits of the Keystore Storage Framework

The key management framework provides several benefits for Transparent Data Encryption.

- Enables separation of duty between the database administrator and the security administrator who manages the keys. You can grant the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT or SYSKM privilege to users who are responsible for managing the keystore and key operations.

- Facilitates compliance, because it helps you to track encryption keys and implement requirements such as keystore password rotation and TDE master encryption key reset or rekey operations.

- Facilitates and helps enforce keystore backup requirements. A backup is a copy of the password-based software keystore that is created for all of the critical keystore operations.
You must make a backup of the keystore for all of the critical keystore operations. You must also make a backup of the TDE master encryption key before you reset or rekey this TDE master encryption key.

- Enables the keystore to be stored on an ASM file system. This is particularly useful for Oracle Real Application Clusters (Oracle RAC) environments where database instances share a unified file system view.

- Enables reverse migration from a Hardware Security Module (HSM) keystore to a file system-based software keystore. This option is useful if you must migrate back to a software keystore.

Types of Keystores

Oracle Database supports both software keystores and hardware, or HSM-based, keystores. Software keystores can be stored on ASM disk groups or in a regular file system.

You can configure the following types of software keystores:

- Password-based software keystores: Password-based software keystores are protected by using a password that you create. You must open this type of keystore before the keys can be retrieved or used.

- Auto-login software keystores: Auto-login software keystores are protected by a system-generated password, and do not need to be explicitly opened by a security administrator. Auto-login software keystores are automatically opened when accessed. Auto-login software keystores can be used across different systems. If your environment does not require the extra security provided by a keystore that must be explicitly opened for use, then you can use an auto-login software keystore. Auto-login software keystores are ideal for unattended scenarios.

- Local auto-login software keystores: Local auto-login software keystores are auto-login software keystores that are local to the computer on which they are created. Local auto-login keystores cannot be opened on any computer other than the one on which they are created. This type of keystore is typically used for scenarios where additional security is required (that is, to limit the use of the auto-login for that computer) while supporting an unattended operation.

Hardware Security Modules are physical devices that provide secure storage for encryption keys, in hardware keystores. HSMs also provide secure computational space (memory) to perform encryption and decryption operations.

When using an HSM, all encryption and decryption operations that use the TDE master encryption key are performed inside the HSM. This means that the TDE master encryption key is never exposed in insecure memory.

Supported Encryption and Integrity Algorithms

By default, Transparent Data Encryption (TDE) Column encryption uses the Advanced Encryption Standard with a 192-bit length cipher key (AES192).

In addition, salt is added by default to plaintext before encryption unless specified otherwise. You cannot add salt to indexed columns that you want to encrypt. For indexed columns, choose the NO SALT parameter for the SQL ENCRYPT clause.

For Transparent Data Encryption (TDE) Tablespace encryption, the default is to use the Advanced Encryption Standard with a 128-bit length cipher key (AES128). In addition, salt is always added to plaintext before encryption.

You can change encryption algorithms and encryption keys on existing encrypted columns by setting a different algorithm with the SQL ENCRYPT clause.

Table 2-1 lists the supported encryption algorithms.

Table 2-1 Supported Encryption Algorithms for Transparent Data Encryption

Algorithm

Key Size

Parameter Name

Triple Encryption Standard (DES)

168 bits

3DES168

Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)

128 bits

AES128

AES

- Default for column level encryption is 192 bits

- Default for tablespace encryption is 128 bits

- AES192 for column level encryption

- AES128 for tablespace encryption

AES

256 bits

AES256

For integrity protection of TDE column encryption, the SHA-1 hashing algorithm is used. If you have storage restrictions, then use the NOMAC option.

See Also:

- Creating a Table with an Encrypted Column Using No Algorithm or a Non-Default Algorithm for the correct syntax when choosing the NO SALT parameter for the SQL ENCRYPT clause

- "Using the NOMAC Parameter to Save Disk Space and Improve Performance" for more information about the NOMAC option in the CREATE TABLE statement

- "Changing the Encryption Key or Algorithm for Tables Containing Encrypted Columns" for syntax examples when setting a different algorithm with the SQL ENCRYPT clause

3 Configuring Transparent Data Encryption

You can configure software or hardware keystores, for use on both individual table columns or entire tablespaces.

Topics:

- Configuring a Software Keystore

- Configuring a Hardware Keystore

- Encrypting Columns in Tables

- Encrypting Tablespaces

- Transparent Data Encryption Data Dynamic and Data Dictionary Views

Configuring a Software Keystore

A software keystore is a container for the TDE master encryption key, and it resides in the software file system.

Topics:

- About Configuring a Software Keystore

- Step 1: Set the Software Keystore Location in the sqlnet.ora File

- Step 2: Create the Software Keystore

- Step 3: Open the Software Keystore

- Step 4: Set the Software TDE Master Encryption Key

- Step 5: Encrypt Your Data

About Configuring a Software Keystore

A software keystore is a container that stores the Transparent Data Encryption master encryption key. Before you can configure the keystore, you first must define a location for it in the sqlnet.ora file.

There is one keystore per database, and the database locates this keystore by checking the keystore location that you define in the sqlnet.ora file. You can create other keystores, such as copies of the keystore and export files that contain keys, depending on your needs. However, you must never remove or delete the keystore that you configured in the sqlnet.ora location, nor replace it with a different keystore.

After you configure the software keystore location in the sqlnet.ora file, you can log in to the database instance to create and open the keystore, and then set the TDE master encryption key. After you complete these steps, you can begin to encrypt data.

Step 1: Set the Software Keystore Location in the sqlnet.ora File

The first step you must take to configure a software keystore is to designate a location for it in the sqlnet.ora file.

Topics:

- About the Keystore Location in the sqlnet.ora File

- Configuring the sqlnet.ora File for a Software Keystore Location

- Example: Configuring a Software Keystore for a Regular File System

- Example: Configuring a Software Keystore When Multiple Databases Share the sqlnet.ora File

- Example: Configuring a Software Keystore for Oracle Automatic Storage Management

- Example: Configuring a Software Keystore for an Oracle Automatic Storage Management Disk Group

About the Keystore Location in the sqlnet.ora File

Oracle Database checks the sqlnet.ora file for the directory location of the keystore, whether it is a software keystore or a hardware module security (HSM) keystore.

You must edit the sqlnet.ora file to define a directory location for the keystore that you plan to create. Ensure that this directory exists beforehand. Preferably, this directory should be empty.

In a multitenant environment, the keystore location is set for the entire multitenant container database (CDB), not for individual pluggable databases (PDBs).

In the sqlnet.ora file, you must set the ENCRYPTION_WALLET_LOCATION parameter to specify the keystore location. When determining which keystore to use, Oracle Database searches for the keystore location in the following places, in this order:

1. It attempts to use the keystore in the location specified by the parameter ENCRYPTION_WALLET_LOCATION in the sqlnet.ora file.

2. If the ENCRYPTION_WALLET_LOCATION parameter is not set, then it attempts to use the keystore in the location that is specified by the parameter WALLET_LOCATION.

3. If the WALLET_LOCATION parameter is also not set, then Oracle Database looks for a keystore at the default database location, which is ORACLE_BASE/admin/DB_UNIQUE_NAME/wallet or ORACLE_HOME/admin/DB_UNIQUE_NAME/wallet. (DB_UNIQUE_NAME is the unique name of the database specified in the initialization parameter file.) When the keystore location is not set in the sqlnet.ora file, then the V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET view displays the default location. You can check the location and status of the keystore in the V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET view.

By default, the sqlnet.ora file is located in the ORACLE_HOME/network/admin directory or in the location set by the TNS_ADMIN environment variable. Ensure that you have properly set the TNS_ADMIN environment variable to point to the correct sqlnet.ora file. See SQL*Plus User's Guide and Reference for more information and examples of setting the TNS_ADMIN environment variable.

See Also:

"Migrating a Software Password Keystore to a Hardware Keystore and Vice Versa" for information about how to configure the sqlnet.ora file for migration between these two keystore types

Configuring the sqlnet.ora File for a Software Keystore Location

You can configure the sqlnet.ora file for use on a regular file system, a system in which multiple databases must access the same sqlnet.ora file, and for use with an Oracle Automatic Storage Management (ASM) disk group.

- To create a software keystore on a regular file system, use the following format when you edit the sqlnet.ora file:

ENCRYPTION_WALLET_LOCATION=
(SOURCE=
(METHOD=FILE)
(METHOD_DATA=
(DIRECTORY=path_to_keystore)))

Example: Configuring a Software Keystore for a Regular File System

You can configure a software keystore for a regular file system.

The following example shows how to configure a software keystore location in the sqlnet.ora file for a regular file system in which the database name is orcl.

ENCRYPTION_WALLET_LOCATION=
(SOURCE=
(METHOD=FILE)
(METHOD_DATA=
(DIRECTORY=/etc/ORACLE/WALLETS/orcl)))

Example: Configuring a Software Keystore When Multiple Databases Share the sqlnet.ora File

You can configure multiple databases to share the sqlnet.ora file.

The following example shows how to configure a software keystore location when multiple databases share the sqlnet.ora file.

ENCRYPTION_WALLET_LOCATION=
(SOURCE=
(METHOD=FILE)
(METHOD_DATA=
(DIRECTORY=/etc/ORACLE/WALLETS/$ORACLE_SID/)))

Example: Configuring a Software Keystore for Oracle Automatic Storage Management

You can configure sqlnet.ora for an Automatic Storage Management (ASM) file system

The following example shows how to configure a software keystore location in the sqlnet.ora file for an ASM file system:

ENCRYPTION_WALLET_LOCATION=
(SOURCE=
(METHOD=FILE)
(METHOD_DATA=
(DIRECTORY=+disk1/mydb/wallet)))

Example: Configuring a Software Keystore for an Oracle Automatic Storage Management Disk Group

You can configure sqlnet.ora for an Oracle Automatic Storage Management (ASM) disk group.

The following format shows how to configure a software keystore if you want to create a software keystore location on an ASM disk group:

ENCRYPTION_WALLET_LOCATION=
(SOURCE=
(METHOD=FILE)
(METHOD_DATA=
(DIRECTORY=+ASM_file_path_of_the_diskgroup)))

Step 2: Create the Software Keystore

After you have specified a directory location for the software keystore, you can create the keystore.

Topics:

- About Creating Software Keystores

- Creating a Password-Based Software Keystore

- Creating an Auto-Login or Local Auto-Login Software Keystore

About Creating Software Keystores

There are three different types of software keystores.

You can create password-based software keystores, auto-login software keystores, and local auto-login software keystores.

See Also:

"Types of Keystores" for more information about software keystores

Creating a Password-Based Software Keystore

A password-based software keystore requires a user password, which is used to protect the keys and credentials stored in the keystore.

1. Ensure that you complete the procedure described in "Step 1: Set the Software Keystore Location in the sqlnet.ora File".

2. Log in to the database instance as a user who has been granted the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT or SYSKM privilege.
In a multitenant environment, log in to the root. For example:

sqlplus c##sec_admin as syskm
Enter password: password
Connected.

If SQL*Plus is already open and you had modified the sqlnet.ora file during this time, then reconnect to SQL*Plus. The database session must be changed before the sqlnet.ora changes can take effect.

3. Run the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SQL statement to create the keystore.
The syntax is as follows:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT CREATE KEYSTORE 'keystore_location' IDENTIFIED BY software_keystore_password;

In this specification:

- keystore_location is the path to the keystore directory location of the password-based keystore for which you want to create the auto-login keystore (for example, /etc/ORACLE/WALLETS/orcl). Enclose the keystore_location setting in single quotation marks (' '). To find this location, you can query the WRL_PARAMETER column of the V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET view. (If the keystore was not created in the default location, then the STATUS column of the V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET view is NOT_AVAILABLE.)

- software_keystore_password is the password of the keystore that you, the security administrator, creates.

For example, to create the keystore in the /etc/ORACLE/WALLETS/orcl directory:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT CREATE KEYSTORE '/etc/ORACLE/WALLETS/orcl' IDENTIFIED BY password;

keystore altered.

After you run this statement, the ewallet.p12 file, which is the keystore, appears in the keystore location.

Creating an Auto-Login or Local Auto-Login Software Keystore

As an alternative to password-based keystores, you can create either an auto-login or local auto-login software keystore.

Both of these keystores have system-generated passwords. They are also PKCS#12-based files. The auto-login software keystore can be opened from different computers from the computer where this keystore resides, but the local auto-login software keystore can only be opened from the computer on which it was created. Both the auto-login and local auto-login keystores are created from the password-based software keystores.

1. Ensure that you complete the procedure described in "Step 1: Set the Software Keystore Location in the sqlnet.ora File".

2. Log in to the database instance as a user who has been granted the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT or SYSKM privilege.
In a multitenant environment, log in to the root. For example:

sqlplus c##sec_admin as syskm
Enter password: password
Connected.

If SQL*Plus is already open and you had modified the sqlnet.ora file during this time, then reconnect to SQL*Plus. The database session must be changed before the sqlnet.ora changes can take effect.

3. Create a password-based software keystore, as described in "Creating a Password-Based Software Keystore".

4. Run the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SQL statement to create the keystore.
The syntax is as follows:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT CREATE [LOCAL] AUTO_LOGIN KEYSTORE FROM KEYSTORE 'keystore_location' IDENTIFIED BY software_keystore_password;

In this specification:

- LOCAL enables you to create a local auto-login software keystore. Otherwise, omit this clause if you want the keystore to be accessible by other computers.

- keystore_location is the path to the directory location of the password-based keystore for which you want to create the auto-login keystore (for example, /etc/ORACLE/WALLETS/orcl). Enclose this setting in single quotation marks (' '). To find this location, query the WRL_PARAMETER column of the V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET view.

- software_keystore_password is the password-based keystore for which you want to create the auto-login keystore.

For example, to create an auto-login software keystore of the password-based keystore that is located in the/etc/ORACLE/WALLETS/orcl directory:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT CREATE AUTO_LOGIN KEYSTORE FROM KEYSTORE '/etc/ORACLE/WALLETS/orcl' IDENTIFIED BY password;

keystore altered.

After you run this statement, the cwallet.sso file appears in the keystore location. The ewallet.p12 file is the password-based wallet.

Note:

Do not remove the PKCS#12 wallet (ewallet.p12 file) after you create the auto login keystore (.sso file). You must have the PKCS#12 wallet to regenerate or rekey the TDE master encryption key in the future. By default, this file is located in the $ORACLE_HOME/admin/ORACLE_SID/wallet directory.

Transparent Data Encryption uses an auto login keystore only if it is available at the correct location (ENCRYPTION_WALLET_LOCATION, WALLET_LOCATION, or the default keystore location), and the SQL statement to open an encrypted keystore has not already been executed. (Note that auto-login keystores are encrypted, because they have system-generated passwords.)

See Also:

"Deletion of Keystores"

Step 3: Open the Software Keystore

Depending on the type of keystore you create, you must manually open the keystore before you can use it.

Topics:

- About Opening Software Keystores

- Opening a Software Keystore

About Opening Software Keystores

You must manually open a password-based software keystore before any TDE master encryption keys can be created or accessed in the keystore.

You do not need to manually open auto-login or local auto-login software keystores. These keystore are automatically opened when it is required, that is, when an encryption operation must access the key. If necessary, you can explicitly close any of these types of keystores. You can check the status of whether a keystore is open, closed, open but with no master key, or open but with an unknown master key by querying the STATUS column of the V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET view.

After you open a keystore, it remains open until you manually close it. Each time you restart a database instance, you must manually open the password keystore to reenable encryption and decryption operations.

See Also:

"How Open and Close Operations for a Keystore Work in a Multitenant Environment"

Opening a Software Keystore

To open a software keystore, you must use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement with the SET KEYSTORE OPEN clause.

1. Ensure that you complete the procedure described in "Step 2: Create the Software Keystore".

2. Log in to the database instance as a user who has been granted the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT or SYSKM privilege.

In a multitenant environment, you must open the keystore first in the root before you can open it in a PDB. For example, to log in to the root:

sqlplus c##sec_admin as syskm
Enter password: password
Connected.

To find the available PDBs, query the DBA_PDBS data dictionary view. To check the current PDB, run the show con_name command.

3. Run the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement.

Use the following syntax:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET KEYSTORE OPEN IDENTIFIED BY software_keystore_password [CONTAINER = ALL | CURRENT];

In this specification:

- software_keystore_password is the same password that you used to create the keystore in "Step 2: Create the Software Keystore".

- CONTAINER is for use in a multitenant environment. Enter ALL to set the keystore in all of the PDBs in this CDB, or CURRENT for the current PDB.
For example:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET KEYSTORE OPEN IDENTIFIED BY password;

keystore altered.

Note that if the keystore is open but you have not created a TDE master encryption key yet (described next), the STATUS column of the V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET view reminds you with an OPEN_NO_MASTER_KEY status.

Step 4: Set the Software TDE Master Encryption Key

Once the keystore is open, you can set a TDE master encryption key for it.

Topics:

- About Setting the Software TDE Master Encryption Key

- Setting the TDE Master Encryption Key in the Software Keystore

About Setting the Software TDE Master Encryption Key

The TDE master encryption key is stored in the keystore.

This key protects the TDE table keys and tablespace encryption keys. By default, the TDE master encryption key is a key that Transparent Data Encryption (TDE) generates.

In a multitenant environment, you can create and manage the TDE master encryption key from either the root or the PDB.

Note:

You can create TDE master encryption keys for use later on, and then manually activate them. See "Creating TDE Master Encryption Keys for Later Use" for more information.

Setting the TDE Master Encryption Key in the Software Keystore

To set the TDE master encryption key in a software keystore, use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement with the SET KEY clause.

1. For password software keystores, ensure that you complete the procedure described in "Step 3: Open the Software Keystore" to open the key.
Auto-login or local auto-login software keys are opened automatically after you create them. Password-based software keystores must be open before you can set the TDE master encryption key. If the auto-login software keystore is open, then you must close it and open the password-based software keystore. If both the password-based keystore and auto-login keystores are present in the configured location and the password-based keystore is open, then the TDE master encryption key is automatically written to the auto-login keystore as well.

2. Log in to the database instance as a user who has been granted the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT or SYSKM privilege.
In a multitenant environment, log in to the root or to the PDB. For example, to log in to a PDB:

sqlplus sec_admin@hrpdb as syskm
Enter password: password
Connected.

To find the available PDBs, query the DBA_PDBS data dictionary view. To check the current PDB, run the show con_name command.

3. Ensure that the database is open in READ WRITE mode.
You can set the TDE master encryption key if OPEN_MODE is set to READ WRITE. To find the status, for a non-multitenant environment, query the OPEN_MODE column of the V$DATABASE dynamic view. If you are using a multitenant environment, then query the V$PDBS view. (If you cannot access these views, then connect as SYSDBA and try the query again. In order to connect as SYSKM for this type of query, you must create a password file for it. See Oracle Database Administrator's Guide for more information.)

4. Connect using the SYSKM administrative privilege and then run the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SQL statement to set the software management keystore.

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET KEY [USING TAG 'tag'] IDENTIFIED BY password [WITH BACKUP [USING 'backup_identifier']] [CONTAINER = ALL | CURRENT];

In this specification:

- tag is the associated attributes and information that you define. Enclose this setting in single quotation marks (' ').

- password is the mandatory keystore password that you created when you created the keystore in "Step 2: Create the Software Keystore".

- WITH BACKUP creates a backup of the keystore. You must use this option for password-based keystores. Optionally, you can use the USING clause to add a brief description of the backup. Enclose this description in single quotation marks (' '). This identifier is appended to the named keystore file (for example, ewallet_time_stamp_emp_key_backup.p12, with emp_key_backup being the backup identifier). Follow the file naming conventions that your operating system uses.

- CONTAINER is for use in a multitenant environment. Enter ALL to set the key in all of the PDBs in this CDB, or CURRENT for the current PDB.

For example:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET KEY IDENTIFIED BY password WITH BACKUP USING 'emp_key_backup';

keystore altered.

Step 5: Encrypt Your Data

After you complete the software keystore configuration, you can begin to encrypt data.

You can encrypt data in individual table columns or in entire tablespaces.

- See the following topics for information about encrypting data:

- "Encrypting Columns in Tables"

- "Encrypting Tablespaces"

Configuring a Hardware Keystore

A hardware keystore resides in a hardware security module (HSM), which is designed to store encryption keys.

Topics:

- About Configuring a Hardware Keystore

- Step 1: Set the Hardware Keystore Type in the sqlnet.ora File

- Step 2: Configure the Hardware Security Module

- Step 3: Open the Hardware Keystore

- Step 4: Set the Hardware Keystore TDE Master Encryption Key

- Step 5: Encrypt Your Data

About Configuring a Hardware Keystore

A hardware security module (HSM) is a physical device that provides secure storage for encryption keys.

To configure a keystore for a hardware security module (hardware keystore), you must first include the keystore type in the sqlnet.ora file, configure and open the hardware keystore, and then set the hardware keystore TDE master encryption key. In short, there is one hardware keystore per database, and the database locates this keystore by checking the keystore type that you define in the sqlnet.ora file.

After you configure the hardware keystore, you are ready to begin encrypting your data.

Step 1: Set the Hardware Keystore Type in the sqlnet.ora File

Before you can configure a hardware keystore, you must enable the database to recognize that it is a hardware security module by editing the sqlnet.ora file. By default, this file is located in the ORACLE_HOME/network/admin directory or in the location set by the TNS_ADMIN environment variable.

- Use the following setting in the sqlnet.ora file to define the hardware keystore type, which is HSM.

ENCRYPTION_WALLET_LOCATION=
(SOURCE=
(METHOD=HSM))

See Also:

- "About the Keystore Location in the sqlnet.ora File" for more information about how Oracle Database finds the keystore location

- "Migrating a Software Password Keystore to a Hardware Keystore and Vice Versa" for information about how to configure the sqlnet.ora file for migration between these two keystore types

Step 2: Configure the Hardware Security Module

To configure a hardware security module, you must copy the PKCS#11 library to the correct location and then follow your vendor's instructions to complete the configuration.

1. Ensure that you complete the procedure described in "Step 1: Set the Hardware Keystore Type in the sqlnet.ora File".

2. Copy the PKCS#11 library to its correct path.
Your hardware security module vendor should provide you with an associated PKCS#11 library. Only one PKCS#11 library is supported at a time. If you want to use an HSM from a new vendor, then you must replace the PKCS#11 library from the earlier vendor with the library from the new vendor.

Copy this library to the appropriate location to ensure that Oracle Database can find this library:

- UNIX systems: Use the following syntax to copy the library to this directory:

/opt/oracle/extapi/[32,64]/hsm/{VENDOR}/{VERSION}/libapiname.so

- Windows systems: Use the following syntax to copy the library to this directory:

%SYSTEM_DRIVE%\oracle\extapi\[32,64]\hsm\{VENDOR}\{VERSION}\libapiname.dll

In this specification:

- [32,64] specifies whether the supplied binary is 32 bits or 64 bits.

- VENDOR stands for the name of the vendor supplying the library

- VERSION refers to the version of the library. This should preferably be in the format, number.number.number

- apiname requires no special format. However, the apiname must be prefixed with the word lib, as illustrated in the syntax.

3. Follow your vendor's instructions to set up the hardware security module.

Use your hardware security module management interface and the instructions provided by your HSM vendor to set up the hardware security module. Create the user account and password that must be used by the database to interact with the hardware security module. This process creates and configures a hardware keystore that communicates with your Oracle database.

Step 3: Open the Hardware Keystore

After you have configured the hardware security module, you must open the hardware keystore before it can be used.

Topics:

- About Opening the Hardware Keystore

- Opening the Hardware Keystore

About Opening the Hardware Keystore

You must open the hardware keystore so that it is accessible to the database before you can perform any encryption or decryption.

You can check the status of whether a keystore is open, closed, open but with no TDE master encryption key, or open but with an unknown master encryption key by querying the STATUS column of the V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET view.

See Also:

"How Open and Close Operations for a Keystore Work in a Multitenant Environment"

Opening the Hardware Keystore

To open a hardware keystore, use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement with the SET KEYSTORE OPEN clause.

1. Ensure that you complete the procedure described in "Step 2: Configure the Hardware Security Module".

2. Log in to the database instance as a user who has been granted the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT or SYSKM privilege.
In a multitenant environment, you must open the keystore first in the root before you can open it in a PDB. For example, to log in to the root:

sqlplus sec_admin as syskm
Enter password: password
Connected.

To find the available PDBs, query the DBA_PDBS data dictionary view. To check the current PDB, run the show con_name command.

If SQL*Plus is already open and you had modified the sqlnet.ora file during this time, then reconnect to SQL*Plus. The database session must be changed before the sqlnet.ora changes can take effect.

3. Run the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SQL statement using the following syntax:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET KEYSTORE OPEN IDENTIFIED BY "user_id:password" [CONTAINER = ALL | CURRENT];

In this specification:

- user_id is the user ID created for the database using the HSM management interface

- password is the password created for the user ID using the HSM management interface.
Enclose the user_id:password string in double quotation marks (" ") and separate user_id and password with a colon (:).

- CONTAINER is for use in a multitenant environment. Enter ALL to set the keystore in all of the PDBs in this CDB, or CURRENT for the current PDB.

For example:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET KEYSTORE OPEN IDENTIFIED BY "psmith:password";

keystore altered.

4. Repeat this procedure each time you restart the database instance.

Step 4: Set the Hardware Keystore TDE Master Encryption Key

After you have opened the hardware keystore, you are ready to set the hardware keystore TDE master encryption key.

Topics:

- About Setting the Hardware Keystore TDE Master Encryption Key

- Setting a TDE Master Encryption Key if You Have Not Previously Configured One

- Migration of a Previously Configured TDE Master Encryption Key

About Setting the Hardware Keystore TDE Master Encryption Key

To start using hardware security module-based encryption, you must create a TDE master encryption key that is stored inside the hardware keystore.

Oracle Database uses the TDE master encryption key to encrypt or decrypt TDE table keys or tablespace encryption keys inside the hardware security module.

If you have not previously configured a software keystore for Transparent Data Encryption, then follow the steps in "Setting a TDE Master Encryption Key if You Have Not Previously Configured One". If you have already configured a software keystore for TDE, then you must migrate it to the hardware security module, as described in "Migration of a Previously Configured TDE Master Encryption Key".

Along with the current TDE master key, Oracle wallets maintain historical TDE master keys that are generated after every re-key operation that rotates the TDE master key. These historical TDE master keys help to restore Oracle database backups that were taken previously using one of the historical TDE master keys.

Setting a TDE Master Encryption Key if You Have Not Previously Configured One

You should complete this procedure if you have not previously configured a software keystore for Transparent Data Encryption.

In a multitenant environment, you can create and manage the TDE master encryption key from either the root or the PDB.

Note:

You can create TDE master encryption keys for use later on, and then manually activate them. See "Creating TDE Master Encryption Keys for Later Use" for more information.

1. Ensure that you complete the procedure described in "Step 3: Open the Hardware Keystore".

2. Log in to the database instance as a user who has been granted the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT or SYSKM privilege.
In a multitenant environment, log in to the root or to the PDB. For example:

sqlplus sec_admin@hrpdb as syskm
Enter password: password
Connected.

To find the available PDBs, query the DBA_PDBS data dictionary view. To check the current PDB, run the show con_name command.

3. Ensure that the database is open in READ WRITE mode.
You can set the TDE master encryption key if OPEN_MODE is set to READ WRITE. To find the status, for a non-multitenant environment, query the OPEN_MODE column of the V$DATABASE dynamic view. If you are in a multitenant environment, then query the V$PDBS view. (If you cannot access these views, then connect as SYSDBA and try the query again. In order to connect as SYSKM for this type of query, you must create a password file for it. See Oracle Database Administrator's Guide for more information.)

4. Run the following SQL statement:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET KEY [USING TAG 'tag'] IDENTIFIED BY "user_id:password" [CONTAINER = ALL | CURRENT];

In this specification:

- tag is the associated attributes and information that you define. Enclose this setting in single quotation marks (' ').

- user_id is the user ID created for the database using the HSM management interface.

- password is the password created for the user ID using the HSM management interface. Enclose the user_id:password string in double quotation marks (" ") and separate user_id and password with a colon (:).

- CONTAINER is for use in a multitenant environment. Enter ALL to set the keystore in all of the PDBs in this CDB, or CURRENT for the current PDB.

For example:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET KEY IDENTIFIED BY "psmith:password";

keystore altered.

Migration of a Previously Configured TDE Master Encryption Key

You must migrate the previously configured TDE master encryption key if you previously configured a software keystore.

Tools such as Oracle Data Pump and Oracle Recovery Manager require access to the old software keystore to perform decryption and encryption operations on data exported or backed up using the software keystore. You can migrate from the software to the hardware keystore by following the instructions in "Migrating a Software Password Keystore to a Hardware Keystore and Vice Versa".

Along with the current TDE master key, Oracle wallets maintain historical TDE master keys that are generated after every re-key operation that rotates the TDE master key. These historical TDE master keys help to restore Oracle database backups that were taken previously using one of the historical TDE master keys.

Step 5: Encrypt Your Data

After you have completed the hardware keystore configuration, you can begin to encrypt data.

You can encrypt individual columns in a table or entire tablespaces.

- See the following topics for more information about encrypting data:

- "Encrypting Columns in Tables"

- "Encrypting Tablespaces"

Encrypting Columns in Tables

You can use Transparent Data Encryption to encrypt individual columns in database tables.

Topics:

- About Encrypting Columns in Tables

- Data Types That Can Be Encrypted with TDE Column Encryption

- Restrictions on Using Transparent Data Encryption Column Encryption

- Creating Tables with Encrypted Columns

- Encrypting Columns in Existing Tables

- Creating an Index on an Encrypted Column

- Adding Salt to an Encrypted Column

- Removing Salt from an Encrypted Column

- Changing the Encryption Key or Algorithm for Tables Containing Encrypted Columns

About Encrypting Columns in Tables

You can encrypt individual columns in tables.

Whether you choose to encrypt individual columns or entire tablespaces depends on the data types that the table has. There are also several features that do not support TDE column encryption.

See Also:

- Data Types That Can Be Encrypted with TDE Column Encryption

- Restrictions on Using Transparent Data Encryption Column Encryption

Data Types That Can Be Encrypted with TDE Column Encryption

Oracle Database supports a specific set of data types that can be used with TDE column encryption.

You can encrypt data columns that use a variety of different data types.

Supported data types are as follows:

- BINARY_DOUBLE

- BINARY_FLOAT

- CHAR

- DATE

- INTERVAL DAY TO SECOND

- INTERVAL YEAR TO MONTH

- NCHAR

- NUMBER

- NVARCHAR2

- RAW (legacy or extended)

- TIMESTAMP (includes TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE and TIMESTAMP WITH LOCAL TIME ZONE)

- VARCHAR2 (legacy or extended)

You cannot encrypt a column if the encrypted column size is greater than the size allowed by the data type of the column.

Table 3-1 shows the maximum allowable sizes for various data types.

Table 3-1 Maximum Allowable Size for Data Types

Data Type

Maximum Size

CHAR

1932 bytes

VARCHAR2 (legacy)

3932 bytes

VARCHAR2 (extended)

32,699 bytes

NVARCHAR2 (legacy)

1966 bytes

NVARCHAR2 (extended)

16,315 bytes

NCHAR

966 bytes

RAW (extended)

32,699 bytes

Note:

TDE tablespace encryption does not have these data type restrictions. See "Encrypting Tablespaces" for more information.

Restrictions on Using Transparent Data Encryption Column Encryption

Transparent Data Encryption (TDE) column encryption encrypts and decrypts data at the SQL layer. Oracle Database utilities and features that bypass the SQL layer cannot use the services provided by TDE column encryption.

Do not use TDE column encryption with the following database features:

- Index types other than B-tree

- Range scan search through an index

- Synchronous change data capture

- Transportable tablespaces

In addition, you cannot use TDE column encryption to encrypt columns used in foreign key constraints.

Applications that must use these unsupported features can use the DBMS_CRYPTO PL/SQL package for their encryption needs.

Transparent Data Encryption protects data stored on a disk or other media. It does not protect data in transit. Use the network encryption solutions discussed in Oracle Database Security Guide to encrypt data over the network.

See Also:

- "How Transparent Data Encryption Works with Export and Import Operations"

- "Data Types That Can Be Encrypted with TDE Column Encryption"

- Oracle Database PL/SQL Packages and Types Reference for information about the DBMS_CRYPTO PL/SQL package

Creating Tables with Encrypted Columns

You can create new tables that have encrypted columns. Oracle Database provides a selection of different algorithms that you can use to definite the encryption.

Topics:

- About Creating Tables with Encrypted Columns

- Creating a Table with an Encrypted Column Using the Default Algorithm

- Creating a Table with an Encrypted Column Using No Algorithm or a Non-Default Algorithm

- Using the NOMAC Parameter to Save Disk Space and Improve Performance

- Example: Using the NOMAC Parameter in a CREATE TABLE Statement

- Example: Changing the Integrity Algorithm for a Table

- Creating an Encrypted Column in an External Table

About Creating Tables with Encrypted Columns

You can use the CREATE TABLE SQL statement to create a table with an encrypted column.

To create relational tables with encrypted columns, you can specify the SQL ENCRYPT clause when you define database columns with the CREATE TABLE SQL statement.

Creating a Table with an Encrypted Column Using the Default Algorithm

By default, TDE uses the AES encryption algorithm with a 192-bit key length (AES192). If you encrypt a table column without specifying an algorithm, then the column is encrypted using the AES192 algorithm.

TDE adds salt to plaintext before encrypting it. Adding salt makes it harder for attackers to steal data through a brute force attack. TDE also adds a Message Authentication Code (MAC) to the data for integrity checking. The SHA-1 integrity algorithm is used by default.

- To create a table that encrypts a column, use the CREATE TABLE SQL statement with the ENCRYPT clause.
For example, to encrypt a table column using the default algorithm:

CREATE TABLE employee (
first_name VARCHAR2(128),
last_name VARCHAR2(128),
empID NUMBER,
salary NUMBER(6) ENCRYPT);

This example creates a new table with an encrypted column (salary). The column is encrypted using the default encryption algorithm (AES192). Salt and MAC are added by default. This example assumes that the wallet is open and a master key is set.

Note:

If there are multiple encrypted columns in a table, then all of these columns must use the same pair of encryption and integrity algorithms.

Salt is specified at the column level. This means that an encrypted column in a table can choose not to use salt irrespective of whether or not other encrypted columns in the table use salt.

Creating a Table with an Encrypted Column Using No Algorithm or a Non-Default Algorithm

You an use the CREATE TABLE SQL statement to create a table with an encrypted column.

By default, TDE adds salt to plaintext before encrypting it. Adding salt makes it harder for attackers to steal data through a brute force attack. However, if you plan to index the encrypted column, then you must use the NO SALT parameter.

- To create a table that uses an encrypted column that is a non-default algorithm or no algorithm, run the CREATE TABLE SQL statement as follows:

- If you do not want to use any algorithm, then include the ENCRYPT NO SALT clause.

- If you want to use a non-default algorithm, then use the ENCRYPT USING clause, followed by one of the following algorithms enclosed in single quotation marks:

- 3DES168

- AES128

- AES192 (default)

- AES256

The following example shows how to specify encryption settings for the empID and salary columns.

CREATE TABLE employee (
first_name VARCHAR2(128),
last_name VARCHAR2(128),
empID NUMBER ENCRYPT NO SALT,
salary NUMBER(6) ENCRYPT USING '3DES168');

In this example:

- The empID column is encrypted and does not use salt. Both the empID and salary columns will use the 3DES168 encryption algorithm, because all of the encrypted columns in a table must use the same encryption algorithm.

- The salary column is encrypted using the 3DES168 encryption algorithm. Note that the string that specifies the algorithm must be enclosed in single quotation marks (' '). The salary column uses salt by default.

Using the NOMAC Parameter to Save Disk Space and Improve Performance

You can bypass checks that TDE performs. This can save up to 20 bytes of disk space per encrypted value.

If the number of rows and encrypted columns in the table is large, then bypassing TDE checks can add up to a significant amount of disk space. In addition, this saves processing cycles and reduces the performance overhead associated with TDE.

TDE uses the SHA-1 integrity algorithm by default. All of the encrypted columns in a table must use the same integrity algorithm. If you already have a table column using the SHA-1 algorithm, then you cannot use the NOMAC parameter to encrypt another column in the same table.

- To bypass the integrity check during encryption and decryption operations, use the NOMAC parameter in the CREATE TABLE and ALTER TABLE statements.

See Also:

"Performance and Storage Overhead of Transparent Data Encryption"

Example: Using the NOMAC Parameter in a CREATE TABLE Statement

You can use the CREATE TABLE SQL statement to encrypt a table column using the NOMAC parameter.

Example 3-1 creates a table with an encrypted column. The empID column is encrypted using the NOMAC parameter.

Example 3-1 Using the NOMAC parameter in a CREATE TABLE statement

CREATE TABLE employee (
first_name VARCHAR2(128),
last_name VARCHAR2(128),
empID NUMBER ENCRYPT 'NOMAC' ,
salary NUMBER(6));

Example: Changing the Integrity Algorithm for a Table

You can use the ALTER TABLE SQL statement to change the integrity algorithm for a database table.

Example 3-2 shows how to change the integrity algorithm for encrypted columns in a table. The encryption algorithm is set to 3DES168 and the integrity algorithm is set to SHA-1. The second ALTER TABLE statement sets the integrity algorithm to NOMAC.

Example 3-2 Changing the Integrity Algorithm for a Table

ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE REKEY USING '3DES168' 'SHA-1';

ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE REKEY USING '3DES168' 'NOMAC';

Creating an Encrypted Column in an External Table

The external table feature enables you to access data in external sources as if the data were in a database table. External tables can be updated using the ORACLE_DATAPUMP access driver.

- To encrypt specific columns in an external table, use the ENCRYPT clause when you define those columns:
A system-generated key encrypts the columns. For example, the following CREATE TABLE SQL statement encrypts the ssn column using the 3DES168 algorithm:

CREATE TABLE emp_ext (
first_name,
....
ssn ENCRYPT USING '3DES168',
....

If you plan to move an external table to a new location, then you cannot use a randomly generated key to encrypt the columns. This is because the randomly generated key will not be available at the new location.

For such scenarios, you should specify a password while you encrypt the columns. After you move the data, you can use the same password to regenerate the key required to access the encrypted column data at the new location.

Table partition exchange also requires a password-based TDE table key.

Example 3-3 creates an external table using a password to create the TDE table key.

Example 3-3 Creating a New External Table with a Password-Generated TDE Table Key

CREATE TABLE emp_ext (
first_name,
last_name,
empID,
salary,
ssn ENCRYPT IDENTIFIED BY password
)  ORGANIZATION EXTERNAL
(
TYPE ORACLE_DATAPUMP
DEFAULT DIRECTORY "D_DIR"
LOCATION('emp_ext.dat')
)
REJECT LIMIT UNLIMITED
AS SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE;

Encrypting Columns in Existing Tables

You can encryption columns in existing tables. As with new tables, you have a choice of different algorithms to use to definite the encryption.

Topics:

- About Encrypting Columns in Existing Tables

- Adding an Encrypted Column to an Existing Table

- Encrypting an Unencrypted Column

- Disabling Encryption on a Column

About Encrypting Columns in Existing Tables

The ALTER TABLE SQL statement enables you to encrypt columns in an existing table.

To add an encrypted column to an existing table, or to encrypt or decrypt an existing column, you use the ALTER TABLE SQL statement with the ADD or MODIFY clause.

Adding an Encrypted Column to an Existing Table

You can set a column in an existing table to be encrypted. You also can You can choose to encrypt the column using a different algorithm. You can also specify NO SALT, if you want to index the column.

- To add an encrypted column to an existing table, use the ALTER TABLE ADD statement, specifying the new column with the ENCRYPT clause.

Example 3-4 adds an encrypted column, ssn, to an existing table, called employee. The ssn column is encrypted with the default AES192 algorithm. Salt and MAC are added by default.

Example 3-4 Adding an Encrypted Column to an Existing Table

ALTER TABLE employee ADD (ssn VARCHAR2(11) ENCRYPT);

Encrypting an Unencrypted Column

You can use the ALTER TABLE MODIFY statement to encrypt an existing unencrypted column.

- To encrypt an existing unencrypted column, use the ALTER TABLE MODIFY statement, specifying the unencrypted column with the ENCRYPT clause.

The following example encrypts the first_name column in the employee table. The first_name column is encrypted with the default AES192 algorithm. Salt is added to the data, by default. You can encrypt the column using a different algorithm. If you want to index a column, then you must specify NO SALT. You can also bypass integrity checks by using the NOMAC parameter.

ALTER TABLE employee MODIFY (first_name ENCRYPT);

The following example encrypts the first_name column in the employee table using the NOMAC parameter.

ALTER TABLE employee MODIFY (first_name ENCRYPT 'NOMAC');

Disabling Encryption on a Column

You may want to disable encryption for reasons of compatibility or performance.

- To disable column encryption, use the ALTER TABLE MODIFY command with the DECRYPT clause.

Example 3-5 decrypts the first_name column in the employee table.

Example 3-5 Turning Off Column Encryption

ALTER TABLE employee MODIFY (first_name DECRYPT);

Creating an Index on an Encrypted Column

You can create an index on an encrypted column.

The column being indexed must be encrypted without salt. If the column is encrypted with salt, then the ORA-28338: cannot encrypt indexed column(s) with salt error is raised.

- To create an index on an encrypted column, use the CREATE INDEX statement with the ENCRYPT NO SALT clause.

Example 3-6 shows how to create an index on a column that has been encrypted without salt.

Example 3-6 Creating Index on a Column Encrypted Without Salt

CREATE TABLE employee (
first_name VARCHAR2(128),
last_name VARCHAR2(128),
empID NUMBER ENCRYPT NO SALT,
salary NUMBER(6) ENCRYPT USING '3DES168');

CREATE INDEX employee_idx on employee (empID);

Adding Salt to an Encrypted Column

Salt is a way to strengthen the security of encrypted data. It is a random string added to the data before it is encrypted.

Salt ensures that the same plaintext data does not always translate to the same encrypted text. Salt removes the one common method that intruders use to steal data, namely, matching patterns of encrypted text. Adding salt requires an additional 16 bytes of storage per encrypted data value.

- To add or remove salt from encrypted columns, use the ALTER TABLE MODIFY SQL statement.

For example, suppose you want to encrypt the first_name column using salt. If the first_name column was encrypted without salt earlier, then the ALTER TABLE MODIFY statement reencrypts it using salt.

ALTER TABLE employee MODIFY (first_name ENCRYPT SALT);

Removing Salt from an Encrypted Column

You can use the ALTER TABLE SQL statement to remove salt from an encrypted column.

- To remove salt from an encrypted column, use the ENCRYPT NO SALT clause in the ALTER TABLE SQL statement.

For example, suppose you wanted to remove salt from the first_name column. If you must index a column that was encrypted using salt, then you can use this statement to remove the salt before indexing

ALTER TABLE employee MODIFY (first_name ENCRYPT NO SALT);

Changing the Encryption Key or Algorithm for Tables Containing Encrypted Columns

You can use the ALTER TABLE SQL statement to change the encryption key or algorithm for tables for containing encrypted columns.

Each table can have only one TDE table key for its columns. You can regenerate the TDE table key with the ALTER TABLE statement. This process generates a new key, decrypts the data in the table using the previous key, reencrypts the data using the new key, and then updates the table metadata with the new key information. You can also use a different encryption algorithm for the new TDE table key.

- To change the encryption key or algorithm for tables that contain encrypted columns, use the ALTER TABLE SQL statement with the REKEY or REKEY USING clause.

For example:

ALTER TABLE employee REKEY;

Example 3-7 regenerates the TDE table key for the employee table by using the 3DES168 algorithm.

Example 3-7 Changing an Encrypted Table Column Encryption Key and Algorithm

ALTER TABLE employee REKEY USING '3DES168';

Encrypting Tablespaces

You can create a new tablespace and encryption it. However, you cannot encrypt an existing tablespace. Before you decide to encrypt a tablespace, you should understand the restrictions.

Topics:

- Restrictions on Using Transparent Data Encryption Tablespace Encryption

- Step 1: Set the COMPATIBLE Initialization Parameter for Tablespace Encryption

- Step 2: Set the Tablespace TDE Master Encryption Key

- Step 3: Create the Encrypted Tablespace

Restrictions on Using Transparent Data Encryption Tablespace Encryption

You should be aware of restrictions on using Transparent Data Encryption when you encrypt a tablespace.

Note the following restrictions:

- Transparent Data Encryption (TDE) tablespace encryption encrypts or decrypts data during read and write operations, as opposed to TDE column encryption, which encrypts and decrypts data at the SQL layer. This means that most restrictions that apply to TDE column encryption, such as data type restrictions and index type restrictions, do not apply to TDE tablespace encryption.

- To perform import and export operations, use Oracle Data Pump.

See Also:

Oracle Database Utilities for more information about Oracle Data Pump

Step 1: Set the COMPATIBLE Initialization Parameter for Tablespace Encryption

You must set the COMPATIBLE initialization parameter before creating an encrypted tablespace.

Topics:

- About Setting the COMPATIBLE Initialization Parameter for Tablespace Encryption

- Setting the COMPATIBLE Initialization Parameter for Tablespace Encryption

About Setting the COMPATIBLE Initialization Parameter for Tablespace Encryption

Before you can use the full set of tablespace encryption features, you must set the COMPATIBLE initialization parameter for the database to 11.2.0.0 or later.

Setting the compatibility to 11.2.0.0 instead of 11.1.0.0 enables the following additional features:

- The 11.2.0.0 setting enables the database to use any of the four supported algorithms for data encryption (3DES168, AES128, AES192, and AES256).

- The 11.2.0.0 setting enables the migration of a key from a software keystore to a hardware keystore (ensure that the TDE master encryption key was configured for the hardware keystore)

- The 11.2.0.0 setting enables resetting and rotating the TDE master encryption key

Be aware that once you set this parameter to 11.2.0.0, the change is irreversible. To use tablespace encryption, ensure that the compatibility setting is at the minimum, which is 11.1.0.0.

See Also:

- Oracle Database SQL Language Reference for more information about the COMPATIBLE parameter

- Oracle Database Administrator's Guide for more information about initialization parameter files

Setting the COMPATIBLE Initialization Parameter for Tablespace Encryption

To set the COMPATIBLE initialization parameter, you must edit the initialization parameter file for the database instance.

1. Log in to the database instance.
In a multitenant environment, log in to the PDB. For example:

sqlplus sec_admin@hrpdb
Enter password: password
Connected.

To find the available PDBs, query the DBA_PDBS data dictionary view. To check the current PDB, run the show con_name command.

2. Check the current setting of the COMPATIBLE parameter.
For example:

SHOW PARAMETER COMPATIBLE

NAME                                 TYPE        VALUE
------------------------------------ ----------- ------------------------------
compatible                           string      12.0.0.0
noncdbcompatible                     BOOLEAN     FALSE

3. If you must change the COMPATIBLE parameter, then complete the remaining steps in this procedure.
The value should be 11.2.0.0 or higher.

4. Locate the initialization parameter file for the database instance.

- UNIX systems: This file is in the ORACLE_HOME/dbs directory and is named initORACLE_SID.ora (for example, initmydb.ora).

- Windows systems: This file is in the ORACLE_HOME\database directory and is named initORACLE_SID.ora (for example, initmydb.ora).

5. In SQL*Plus, connect as a user who has the SYSDBA administrative privilege, and then shut down the database.
For example:

CONNECT /AS SYSDBA
SHUTDOWN

6. Edit the initialization parameter file to use the correct COMPATIBLE setting.
For example:

COMPATIBLE = 12.2.0.0

7. In SQL*Plus, ensure that you are connected as a user who has the SYSDBA administrative privilege, and then start the database.
For example:

CONNECT /AS SYSDBA
STARTUP

If tablespace encryption is in use, then open the keystore at the database mount. The keystore must be open before you can access data in an encrypted tablespace.

STARTUP MOUNT;
ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET KEYSTORE OPEN IDENTIFIED BY password;
ALTER DATABASE OPEN;

Step 2: Set the Tablespace TDE Master Encryption Key

You should ensure that you have configured the TDE master encryption key.

- Set the TDE master encryption key as follows:

- For software TDE master encryption keys, see "Step 4: Set the Software TDE Master Encryption Key".

- For hardware TDE master encryption keys, see "Step 4: Set the Hardware Keystore TDE Master Encryption Key".

Step 3: Create the Encrypted Tablespace

After you have set the COMPATIBLE initialization parameter, you are ready to create the encrypted tablespace.

Topics:

- About Creating Encrypted Tablespaces

- Creating an Encrypted Tablespace

- Example: Creating an Encrypted Tablespace That Uses 3DES168

- Example: Creating an Encrypted Tablespace That Uses the Default Algorithm

About Creating Encrypted Tablespaces

To create an encrypted tablespace, you can use the CREATE TABLESPACE SQL statement.

You must have the CREATE TABLESPACE system privilege to create an encrypted tablespace.

You cannot change an existing tablespace to make it encrypted. You can, however, import data into an encrypted tablespace by using Oracle Data Pump. You can also use a SQL statement such as CREATE TABLE...AS SELECT...or ALTER TABLE...MOVE... to move data into an encrypted tablespace. The CREATE TABLE...AS SELECT... statement creates a table from an existing table. The ALTER TABLE...MOVE... statement moves a table into the encrypted tablespace.

For security reasons, you cannot encrypt a tablespace with the NO SALT option.

You can query the ENCRYPTED column of the DBA_TABLESPACES and USER_TABLESPACES data dictionary views to verify if a tablespace was encrypted.

See Also:

Oracle Database Reference for more information about these data dictionary views

Creating an Encrypted Tablespace

To create an encrypted tablespace, you must use the CREATE TABLESPACE statement with the ENCRYPTION USING clause.

1. Log in to the database instance as a user who has been granted the CREATE TABLESPACE system privilege.
In a multitenant environment, log in to the PDB. For example:

sqlplus sec_admin@hrpdb as syskm
Enter password: password
Connected.

To find the available PDBs, query the DBA_PDBS data dictionary view. To check the current PDB, run the show con_name command.

2. Run the CREATE TABLESPACE statement, using its encryption clauses.
For example:

CREATE TABLESPACE encrypt_ts
DATAFILE '$ORACLE_HOME/dbs/encrypt_df.dbf' SIZE 1M
ENCRYPTION USING 'AES256'
DEFAULT STORAGE (ENCRYPT);

In this specification:

- ENCRYPTION USING 'AES256' specifies the encryption algorithm and the key length for the encryption. Enclose this setting in single quotation marks (' '). The key lengths are included in the names of the algorithms. If you do not specify an encryption algorithm, then the default encryption algorithm, AES128, is used. Choose from the following algorithms:

- 3DES168

- AES128

- AES192

- AES256

- ENCRYPT in the DEFAULT STORAGE clause encrypts the tablespace.

See Also:

Oracle Database SQL Language Reference for the CREATE TABLESPACE statement syntax

Example: Creating an Encrypted Tablespace That Uses 3DES168

You can use the CREATE TABLESPACE SQL statement to create an encrypted tablespace.

Example 3-8 creates a tablespace called securespace_1 that is encrypted using the 3DES algorithm. The key length is 168 bits.

Example 3-8 Creating an Encrypted Tablespace That Uses 3DES168

CREATE TABLESPACE securespace_1
DATAFILE '/home/user/oradata/secure01.dbf'
SIZE 150M
ENCRYPTION USING '3DES168'
DEFAULT STORAGE(ENCRYPT);

Example: Creating an Encrypted Tablespace That Uses the Default Algorithm

You can use the CREATE TABLESPACE SQL statement to create an encrypted tablespace that uses the default algorithm.

Example 3-9 creates a tablespace called securespace_2. Because no encryption algorithm is specified, the default encryption algorithm (AES128) is used. The key length is 128 bits.

You cannot encrypt an existing tablespace.

Example 3-9 Creating an Encrypted Tablespace That Uses the Default Algorithm

CREATE TABLESPACE securespace_2
DATAFILE '/home/user/oradata/secure01.dbf'
SIZE 150M
ENCRYPTION
DEFAULT STORAGE(ENCRYPT);

Transparent Data Encryption Data Dynamic and Data Dictionary Views

Oracle Database provides a set of dynamic and data dictionary views that you can query to find more information about Transparent Data Encryption data.

Table 3-2 describes these dynamic and data dictionary views.

Table 3-2 Transparent Data Encryption Related Views

View

Description

ALL_ENCRYPTED_COLUMNS

Displays encryption information about encrypted columns in the tables accessible to the current user

DBA_ENCRYPTED_COLUMNS

Displays encryption information for all of the encrypted columns in the database

USER_ENCRYPTED_COLUMNS

Displays encryption information for encrypted table columns in the current user's schema

V$CLIENT_SECRETS

Lists the properties of the strings (secrets) that were stored in the keystore for various features (clients).

In a multitenant environment, when you query this view in a PDB, then it displays information about keys that were created or activated for the current PDB. If you query this view in the root, then it displays this information about keys for all of the PDBs.

V$ENCRYPTED_TABLESPACES

Displays information about the tablespaces that are encrypted

V$ENCRYPTION_KEYS

Displays information about the TDE master encryption keys.

In a multitenant environment, when you query this view in a PDB, it displays information about keys that were created or activated for the current PDB. If you query this view in the root, it displays this information about keys for all of the PDBs.

V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET

Displays information on the status of the keystore and the keystore location for TDE

V$WALLET

Displays metadata information for a PKI certificate, which can be used as a master encryption key for TDE

See Also:

Oracle Database Reference for detailed information about these views

4 Managing the Keystore and the TDE Master Encryption Key

You can modify and manage settings for the keystore and TDE master encryption key, and store secrets used by Oracle Database and store Oracle GoldenGate secrets in a keystore.

Topics:

- Managing the Keystore

- Managing the TDE Master Encryption Key

- Storing Secrets Used by Oracle Database

- Storing Oracle GoldenGate Secrets in a Keystore

Managing the Keystore

You can perform maintenance activities on keystores such as changing passwords, backing up keystores, merging keystores, moving keystores, handling keystores on ASM, and closing keystores.

Topics:

- Changing the Password of a Password-Based Software Keystore

- Changing the Password of a Hardware Keystore

- Backing Up Password-Based Software Keystores

- Backups of the Hardware Keystore

- Merging Software Keystores

- Moving a Software Keystore to a New Location

- Migrating a Software Password Keystore to a Hardware Keystore and Vice Versa

- Migration of Keystores to and from Oracle Key Vault

- Closing a Keystore

- Using a Software Keystore That Resides on Automatic Storage Management Volumes

- Backup and Recovery of Encrypted Data

- Deletion of Keystores

See Also:

- "Configuring a Software Keystore"

- "Configuring a Hardware Keystore"

Changing the Password of a Password-Based Software Keystore

Oracle Database enables you to easily change password-based software keystore passwords.

Topics:

- About Changing the Password of a Password-Based Software Keystore

- Changing the Password-Based Software Keystore Password

About Changing the Password of a Password-Based Software Keystore

You can only change (rotate) the password for password-based software keystores.

You can change this password at any time, as per the security policies, compliance guidelines, and other security requirements of your site. As part of the command to change the password, you will be forced to specify the WITH BACKUP clause, and thus forced to make a backup of the current keystore. During the password change operation, Transparent Data Encryption operations such as encryption and decryption will continue to work normally.

You can change this password at any time. You may want to change this password if you think it was compromised.

Changing the Password-Based Software Keystore Password

To change the password of a password-based software keystore, you must use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement.

1. Log in to the database instance as a user who has been granted the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT or SYSKM privilege.
In a multitenant environment, log in to the root. For example:

sqlplus c##sec_admin as syskm
Enter password: password
Connected.

2. Run the following SQL statement:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT ALTER KEYSTORE PASSWORD IDENTIFIED BY
old_password SET new_password [WITH BACKUP [USING 'backup_identifier']];

In this specification:

- old_password is the current keystore password that you want to change.

- new_password is the new password that you set for the keystore.

- WITH BACKUP creates a backup of the current keystore before the password is changed. You must include this clause.

- backup_identifier specifies an optional identifier string for the backup that is created. The backup_identifier is added to the name of the backup file. Enclose backup_identifier in single quotation marks (' '). This identifier is appended to the named keystore file (for example, ewallet_time_stamp_emp_key_pwd_change.p12).

The following example backs up the current keystore and then changes the password for the keystore:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT ALTER KEYSTORE PASSWORD IDENTIFIED BY
old_password SET new_password WITH BACKUP USING 'pwd_change';

keystore altered.

Changing the Password of a Hardware Keystore

To change the password of a hardware keystore, you must use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement.

1. Log in to the database instance as a user who has been granted the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT or SYSKM privilege.
In a multitenant environment, log in to the root. For example:

sqlplus c##sec_admin as syskm
Enter password: password
Connected.

2. Close the hardware keystore.
For example:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET KEYSTORE CLOSE IDENTIFIED BY "psmith:password";

See "Closing a Hardware Keystore".

3. From the hardware security module management interface, create a new hardware security module password.

4. In SQL*Plus, open the hardware keystore.

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET KEYSTORE OPEN IDENTIFIED BY "psmith:new_password";

See "Step 3: Open the Software Keystore".

Backing Up Password-Based Software Keystores

When you back up a password-based software keystore, you optionally can create a backup identifier string to describe the type of backup.

Topics:

- About Backing Up Password-Based Software Keystores

- Creating a Backup Identifier String for the Backup Keystore

- How the V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET View Interprets Backup Operations

- Backing Up a Password-Based Software Keystore

About Backing Up Password-Based Software Keystores

You must back up password-based software keystores, as per the security policy and requirements of your site.

A backup of the keystore contains all of the keys contained in the original keystore. Oracle Database prefixes the backup keystore with the creation time stamp (UTC). If you provide an identifier string, then this string is inserted between the time stamp and keystore name.

After you complete the backup operation, the keys in the original keystore are marked as "backed up". You can check the status of keys querying the V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET data dictionary view.

You cannot back up auto-login or local auto-login software keystores. No new keys can be added to them directly through the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement operations. The information in these keystores is only read and hence there is no need for a backup.

If you have not yet backed up the keystore, then you can include the BACKUP clause in the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement when you create the TDE master encryption key. This both backs up the keystore and creates the TDE master encryption key. ("Step 4: Set the Software TDE Master Encryption Key" shows an example of how to accomplish this.)

Creating a Backup Identifier String for the Backup Keystore

The backup file name of a software password keystore is derived from the name of the password-based software keystore.

Oracle Database prefixes the software keystore password file name with the file creation time stamp in UTC format. If you provide an identifier string, then this string is inserted between the time stamp and keystore name.

- To create a backup identifier string for a backup keystore, use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SQL statement with the BACKUP KEYSTORE clause, with the following syntax:

ewallet_creation-time-stamp-in-UTC_user-defined-string.p12

When you create the backup identifier (user_defined_string), use the operating system file naming convention. For example, in UNIX systems, you may want to ensure that this setting does not have spaces.

Example 4-1 shows the creation of a backup keystore that uses a bug number as the user-identified string, and how the resultant keystore appears in the file system.

Example 4-1 Creating a Backup Identifier String for a Backup Keystore

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT BACKUP KEYSTORE USING 'BUG12966094' IDENTIFIED BY keystore_password;

Resultant keystore file:

ewallet_2013041513244657_BUG12966094.p12

How the V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET View Interprets Backup Operations

In the V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET view, the BACKUP column indicates if a copy of the keystore had been created with the WITH BACKUP clause of the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement or the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT BACKUP KEYSTORE statement.

When you modify a key or a secret, the modifications that you make do not exist in the previously backed-up copy, because you make a copy and then modify the key itself. Because there is no copy of the modification in the previous keystores, the BACKUP column is set to NO, even if the BACKUP had been set to YES previously. Hence, if the BACKUP column is YES, then after you perform an operation that requires a backup, such as adding a custom attribute tag, the BACKUP column value changes to NO.

Backing Up a Password-Based Software Keystore

To back up a password-based software keystore, you must use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement with the BACKUP KEYSTORE clause.

1. Log in to the database instance as a user who has been granted the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT or SYSKM privilege.
In a multitenant environment, log in to the root. For example:

sqlplus c##sec_admin as syskm
Enter password: password
Connected.

2. Run the following SQL statement:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT BACKUP KEYSTORE [USING 'backup_identifier']
IDENTIFIED BY software_keystore_password [TO 'keystore_location'];

In this specification:

- USING backup_identifier is an optional string that you can provide to identify the backup. Enclose this identifier in single quotation marks (' '). This identifier is appended to the named keystore file (for example, ewallet_time-stamp_emp_key_backup.p12).

- software_keystore_password is the password for the keystore.

- keystore_location is the path at which the backup keystore is stored. If you do not specify the keystore_location, then the backup is created in the same directory as the original keystore. Enclose this location in single quotation marks (' ').

The following example backs up a software keystore in the same location as the source keystore:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT BACKUP KEYSTORE USING 'hr.emp_keystore' IDENTIFIED BY
password TO '/etc/ORACLE/KEYSTORE/DB1/';

keystore altered.

After you run this statement, an ewallet_identifier.p12 file (for example, ewallet_time-stamp_hr.emp_keystore.p12) appears in the keystore location.

Backups of the Hardware Keystore

You cannot use Oracle Database to back up hardware keystores.

See your HSM vendor instructions for information about backing up keys for hardware keystores.

Merging Software Keystores

You can merge software keystores in a variety of ways, such as merging two keystores to create a third keystore, merging one keystore into an existing keystore, or merging an auto-login software keystore into a password-based software keystore.

Topics:

- About Merging Software Keystores

- Merging Two Software Keystores into a Third New Keystore

- Merging One Software Keystore into an Existing Software Keystore

- Merging an Auto-Login Software Keystore into an Existing Password-Based Software Keystore

- Reversing a Software Keystore Merge Operation

About Merging Software Keystores

You can merge any combination of the software keystores. However, the merged keystore must be a password-based software keystore, and it can have a password that is different from the constituent keystores.

To use the merged keystore, you must explicitly open the merged keystore after you create it, even if one of the constituent keystores was already open before the merge.

Whether a common key from two source keystores is added or overwritten to a merged keystore depends on how you write the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT merge statement. For example, if you merge Keystore 1 and Keystore 2 to create Keystore 3, then the key in Keystore 1 is added to Keystore 3. If you merge Keystore 1 into Keystore 2, then the common key in Keystore 2 is not overwritten.

The ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT merge statement has no bearing on the configured keystore that is in use. However, the merged keystore can be used as the new configured database keystore if you want. Remember that you must reopen the keystore if you are using the newly created keystore as the keystore for the database at the location configured by the sqlnet.ora file.

See Also:

- "Migrating a Software Password Keystore to a Hardware Keystore and Vice Versa"

- "Step 3: Open the Software Keystore"

Merging Two Software Keystores into a Third New Keystore

You can merge two software keystores into a third new keystore, so that the two existing keystores are not changed.

1. Log in to the database instance as a user who has been granted the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT or SYSKM privilege.

In a multitenant environment, log in to the root. For example:

sqlplus c##sec_admin as syskm
Enter password: password
Connected.

2. Run the following SQL statement:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT MERGE KEYSTORE 'keystore1_location'
[IDENTIFIED BY software_keystore1_password] AND KEYSTORE 'keystore2_location'
[IDENTIFIED BY software_keystore2_password]
INTO NEW KEYSTORE 'keystore3_location'
IDENTIFIED BY software_keystore3_password;

In this specification:

- keystore1_location is the directory location of the first keystore, which will be left unchanged after the merge. Enclose this path in single quotation marks (' ').

- The IDENTIFIED BY clause is required for the first keystore if it is a password-based keystore. software_keystore1_password is the current password for the first keystore.

- keystore2_location is the directory location of the second keystore. Enclose this path in single quotation marks (' ').

- The IDENTIFIED BY clause is required for the second keystore if it is a password-based keystore. software_keystore2_password is the current password for the second keystore.

- keystore3_location specifies the directory location of the new, merged keystore. Enclose this path in single quotation marks (' '). If there is already an existing keystore at this location, the command exits with an error.

- software_keystore3_password is the new password for the merged keystore.

The following example merges an auto-login software keystore with a password-based keystore to create a merged password-based keystore at a new location:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT MERGE KEYSTORE '/etc/ORACLE/KEYSTORE/DB1'
AND KEYSTORE '/etc/ORACLE/KEYSTORE/DB2'
IDENTIFIED BY existing_password_for_keystore_2
INTO NEW KEYSTORE '/etc/ORACLE/KEYSTORE/DB3'
IDENTIFIED BY new_password_for_keystore_3;

keystore altered.

Merging One Software Keystore into an Existing Software Keystore

You can use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement with the MERGE KEYSTORE clause to merge one software keystore into another existing software keystore.

- To perform this type of merge, follow the steps in "Merging Two Software Keystores into a Third New Keystore" but use the following SQL statement:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT MERGE KEYSTORE 'keystore1_location'
[IDENTIFIED BY software_keystore1_password]
INTO EXISTING KEYSTORE 'keystore2_location'
IDENTIFIED BY software_keystore2_password
[WITH BACKUP [USING 'backup_identifier]];

In this specification:

- keystore1_location is the directory location of the first keystore, which will be left unchanged after the merge. Enclose this path in single quotation marks (' ').

- The IDENTIFIED BY clause is required for the first keystore if it is a password-based keystore. software_keystore1_password is the password for the first keystore.

- keystore2_location is the directory location of the second keystore into which the first keystore is to be merged. Enclose this path in single quotation marks (' ').

- software_keystore2_password is the password for the second keystore.

- WITH BACKUP creates a backup of the software keystore. Optionally, you can use the USING clause to add a brief description of the backup. Enclose this description in single quotation marks (' '). This identifier is appended to the named keystore file (for example, ewallet_time-stamp_emp_key_backup.p12, with emp_key_backup being the backup identifier). Follow the file naming conventions that your operating system uses.

The resultant keystore after the merge operation is always a password-based keystore.

Merging an Auto-Login Software Keystore into an Existing Password-Based Software Keystore

You can merge an auto-login software keystore into an existing password-based software keystore.

- Use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT MERGE KEYSTORE SQL statement to merge an auto-login software keystore into an existing password-based software keystore.

Example 4-2 shows how to merge an auto-login software keystore into a password-based software keystore. It also creates a backup of the second keystore before creating the merged keystore.

Example 4-2 Merging a Software Auto-Login Keystore into a Password Keystore

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT MERGE KEYSTORE '/etc/ORACLE/KEYSTORE/DB1'
INTO EXISTING KEYSTORE '/etc/ORACLE/KEYSTORE/DB2'
IDENTIFIED BY password WITH BACKUP;

In this specification:

- MERGE KEYSTORE must specify the auto-login keystore.

- EXISTING KEYSTORE refers to the password keystore.

Reversing a Software Keystore Merge Operation

You cannot directly reverse a keystore merge operation.

When you merge a keystore into an existing keystore (rather than creating a new one), you must include the WITH BACKUP clause in the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement to create a backup of this existing keystore. Later on, if you decide that you must reverse the merge, you can replace the merged software keystore with the one that you backed up.

In other words, suppose you want merge Keystore A into Keystore B. By using the WITH BACKUP clause, you create a backup for Keystore B before the merge operation begins. (The original Keystore A is still intact.) To reverse the merge operation, revert to the backup that you made of Keystore B.

- Use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT MERGE KEYSTORE SQL statement to perform merge operations.

- For example, to perform a merge operation into an existing keystore:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT MERGE KEYSTORE '/etc/ORACLE/KEYSTORE/DB1'
INTO EXISTING KEYSTORE '/etc/ORACLE/KEYSTORE/DB2'
IDENTIFIED BY password WITH BACKUP USING "merge1";

Replace the new keystore with the backup keystore, which in this case would be named ewallet_time-stamp_merge1.p12.

- To merge an auto-login keystore into a password-based keystore, use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT MERGE KEYSTORE SQL statement.

Moving a Software Keystore to a New Location

To move a software keystore to a new location, you must back up and close the keystore, edit the sqlnet.ora file, and then physically move the keystore to the new location.

If you are using Oracle Key Vault, then you can configure a TDE direct connection where Key Vault directly manages the TDE master keys. In this case, you will never need to manually move the keystore to a new location. See Oracle Key Vault Administrator's Guide for more information about using a TDE direct connection.

1. Log in to the database instance as a user who has been granted the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT or SYSKM privilege.
In a multitenant environment, log in to the root or to the pluggable database (PDB). For example, to log in to a PDB called hrpdb:

sqlplus sec_admin@hrpdb as syskm
Enter password: password
Connected.

To find the available PDBs, query the DBA_PDBS data dictionary view. To check the current PDB, run the show con_name command.

2. Make a backup copy of the software keystore.
See "Backing Up Password-Based Software Keystores".

3. Close the software keystore.
For example:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET KEYSTORE CLOSE; -- For an auto-login software keystore

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET KEYSTORE CLOSE IDENTIFIED BY software_keystore_password; -- For a password-based software keystore

4. Exit the database session.
For example, if you are logged in to SQL*Plus:

EXIT

5. Back up and then manually edit the sqlnet.ora file to point to the new location where you want to move the keystore.
See the "Step 1: Set the Software Keystore Location in the sqlnet.ora File" for more information.

6. Use the operating system move command (such as mv) to move the keystore with all of its keys to the new directory location.

Migrating a Software Password Keystore to a Hardware Keystore and Vice Versa

You can migrate password-based software keystores to hardware keystores, and vice versa.

Topics:

- Migrating from a Password-Based Software Keystore to a Hardware Keystore

- Migrating Back from a Hardware Keystore to a Password-Based Software Keystore

- Keystore Order After a Migration

Migrating from a Password-Based Software Keystore to a Hardware Keystore

You can migrate from a password-based software keystore to a hardware keystore.

Topics:

- Step 1: Convert the Software Keystore to Open with the Hardware Keystore

- Step 2: Configure sqlnet.ora for the Migration of the Password-Based Software Keystore

- Step 3: Perform the Hardware Keystore Migration

Step 1: Convert the Software Keystore to Open with the Hardware Keystore

Tools such as Oracle Data Pump and Oracle Recovery Manager require access to the old software keystore to perform decryption and encryption operations on data that was exported or backed up using the software keystore.

- Use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SQL statement to convert a software keystore to a open with a hardware keystore.

- To set the software keystore password as that of the hardware keystore, use the following syntax:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT ALTER KEYSTORE PASSWORD
IDENTIFIED BY software_keystore_password
SET "user_id:password" WITH BACKUP [USING 'backup_identifier'];

In this specification:

- software_keystore_password is the same password that you used when creating the software keystore.

- user_id:password is the new software keystore password which is the same as the password of the HSM.

- WITH BACKUP creates a backup of the software keystore. Optionally, you can use the USING clause to add a brief description of the backup. Enclose this description in single quotation marks (' '). This identifier is appended to the named keystore file (for example, ewallet_time-stamp_emp_key_backup.p12, with emp_key_backup being the backup identifier). Follow the file naming conventions that your operating system uses.

- To create an auto-login keystore for a software keystore, use the following syntax:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT CREATE [LOCAL] AUTO_LOGIN KEYSTORE
FROM KEYSTORE 'keystore_location'
IDENTIFIED BY software_keystore_password;

In this specification:

- LOCAL enables you to create a local auto-login software keystore. Otherwise, omit this clause if you want the keystore to be accessible by other computers.

- keystore_location is the path to the keystore directory location of the keystore that is configured in the sqlnet.ora file.

- software_keystore_password is the existing password of the configured software keystore.

Step 2: Configure sqlnet.ora for the Migration of the Password-Based Software Keystore

After keystore migration, you are ready to open both the software and hardware keystore operations to enable access to keys created in the software keystore when required.

For the software keystore to open with the hardware keystore, either the software keystore must have the same password as the hardware keystore, or alternatively, you can create an auto-login keystore for the software keystore.

If you are migrating from a software keystore to a hardware keystore, then you must edit the sqlnet.ora file to use the METHOD=HSM setting.

See Also:

"About the Keystore Location in the sqlnet.ora File"

- Use the following format in the sqlnet.ora file:

ENCRYPTION_WALLET_LOCATION=
(SOURCE=(METHOD=HSM)(METHOD_DATA=
(DIRECTORY=path_to_keystore)))

path_to_software_keystore is the path to the previously configured software keystore. Having both HSM and the DIRECTORY location in the ENCRYPTION_WALLET_LOCATION parameter indicates that you switched between using the software keystore and the hardware keystore in the past, and it also enables you to switch back easily in the future.

Note:

If a DIRECTORY value is present in the ENCRYPTION_WALLET_LOCATION parameter setting, then ensure that you do not delete it.

Although hardware keystores do not require a DIRECTORY value, Oracle Database uses this value to locate your software keystore when you migrate to and from a hardware security module.

Example 4-3 shows how to edit the sqlnet.ora file to format a software keystore to hardware security module-based keystore or the reverse:

Example 4-3 Sample ENCRYPTION_WALLET_LOCATION Entries

ENCRYPTION_WALLET_LOCATION=
(SOURCE=(METHOD=HSM)(METHOD_DATA=
(DIRECTORY=/app/wallet)))

Step 3: Perform the Hardware Keystore Migration

You can use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SQL statement to perform a hardware keystore migration.

To migrate from the software keystore to hardware keystore, you must use the MIGRATE USING keystore_password clause in the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET KEY SQL statement to decrypt the existing TDE table keys and the tablespace encryption keys with the TDE master encryption key in the software keystore and then reencrypt them with the newly created TDE master encryption key in the hardware keystore.

After you complete the migration, you do not need to restart the database, nor do you need to manually re-open the hardware keystore. The migration process automatically reloads the keystore keys in memory.

- Use the following syntax when you run the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SQL statement for migration:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET ENCRYPTION KEY IDENTIFIED BY "user_id:password" MIGRATE USING software_keystore_password [WITH BACKUP [USING 'backup_identifier']];

In this specification:

- user_id:password is the user ID and password that was created in Step 3 under "Step 2: Configure the Hardware Security Module" (in Configuring Transparent Data Encryption). Enclose this setting in double quotation marks (" ") and separate user_id and password with a colon (:).

- software_keystore_password is the same password that you used when creating the software keystore or that you have changed to in "Step 1: Convert the Software Keystore to Open with the Hardware Keystore".

- USING enables you to add a brief description of the backup. Enclose this description in single quotation marks (' '). This identifier is appended to the named keystore file (for example, ewallet_time-stamp_emp_key_backup.p12, with emp_key_backup being the backup identifier). Follow the file naming conventions that your operating system uses.

Note:

If the database contains columns encrypted with a public key, then the columns are decrypted and reencrypted with an AES symmetric key generated by HSM-based Transparent Data Encryption.

Migrating Back from a Hardware Keystore to a Password-Based Software Keystore

You can migrate a hardware keystore back to a software keystore.

Topics:

- About Migrating Back from a Hardware Keystore

- Step 1: Configure sqlnet.ora for the Reverse Migration

- Step 2: Configuring the Keystore for the Reverse for the Reverse Migration

- Step 3: Configuring the Hardware Keystore to Open with the Software Keystore

About Migrating Back from a Hardware Keystore

If you want to switch from using a hardware keystore solution to a software keystore, then you can use reverse migration of the keystore.

After you complete the switch, keep the hardware security module, in case earlier backup files rely on the TDE master encryption keys in the hardware security module.

If you had originally migrated from the software keystore to the hardware security module and reconfigured the software keystore as described in "Migration of a Previously Configured TDE Master Encryption Key", then you already have an existing keystore with the same password as the HSM password. Reverse migration configures this keystore to act as the new software keystore with a new password. If your existing keystore is an auto-login software keystore and you have the password-based software keystore for this auto-login keystore, then use the password-based keystore. If the password-based keystore is not available, then merge the auto-login keystore into a newly created empty password-based keystore, and use the newly create password-based keystore.

If you do not have an existing keystore, then you must specify a keystore location in the sqlnet.ora file using the ENCRYPTION_WALLET_LOCATION parameter. When you perform the reverse migration, migrate to the previous keystore so that you do not lose the keys.

See Also:

"Merging Software Keystores"

Step 1: Configure sqlnet.ora for the Reverse Migration

First, you must edit the sqlnet.ora file.

- Set the following configuration in the sqlnet.ora file:

ENCRYPTION_WALLET_LOCATION=
(SOURCE=(METHOD=FILE)(METHOD_DATA=
(DIRECTORY=path_to_keystore)))

Replace path_to_keystore with the directory location of the destination keystore.

See Also:

"About the Keystore Location in the sqlnet.ora File"

Step 2: Configuring the Keystore for the Reverse for the Reverse Migration

To perform a reverse migration on a keystore, you can use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement with the SET ENCRYPTION KEY and REVERSE MIGRATE clauses.

1. Log in to the database instance as a user who has been granted the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT or SYSKM privilege.
In a multitenant environment, log in to the root. For example:

sqlplus c##sec_admin as syskm
Enter password: password
Connected.

2. Run the following SQL statement:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET ENCRYPTION KEY IDENTIFIED BY software_keystore_password REVERSE MIGRATE USING "user_id:password" [WITH BACKUP [USING 'backup_identifier']];

In this specification:

- software_keystore_password is the password for the existing keystore or the new keystore.

- user_id:password is the user ID and password that was created in Step 3 in "Step 2: Configure the Hardware Security Module" (in Configuring Transparent Data Encryption). If the pre-hardware security module software keystore is the new keystore, then you must ensure that it has the same password as the user_id:password before issuing the reverse migration command. Enclose this setting in double quotation marks (" ").

- WITH BACKUP creates a backup of the software keystore. Optionally, you can include the USING clause to add a brief description of the backup. Enclose this description in single quotation marks (' '). This identifier is appended to the named keystore file (for example, ewallet_time-stamp_emp_key_backup.p12, with emp_key_backup being the backup identifier). Follow the file naming conventions that your operating system uses.

For example:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET ENCRYPTION KEY IDENTIFIED BY password REVERSE MIGRATE USING "psmith:password" WITH BACKUP;

keystore altered.

3. Optionally, change the keystore password.
See "Changing the Password of a Password-Based Software Keystore" for more information.

Step 3: Configuring the Hardware Keystore to Open with the Software Keystore

After you complete the migration, you do not need to restart the database, nor do you need to manually re-open the software keystore. The migration process automatically reloads the keystore keys in memory.

The hardware keystore may still be required after reverse migration because the old keys are likely to have been used for encrypted backups or by tools such as Oracle Data Pump and Oracle Recovery Manager. You should cache the hardware keystore credentials in the keystore so that the HSM can be opened with the software keystore. See "Configuring Auto-Login Hardware Security Modules" for more information about how to store the HSM credential in a migrated keystore.

Keystore Order After a Migration

After you perform a migration, keystores can be either primary or secondary in their order.

The WALLET_ORDER column of the V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET dynamic view describes whether a keystore is primary (that is, it holds the current TDE master encryption key) or if it is secondary (it holds the previous TDE master encryption key). The WRL_TYPE column describes the type of locator for the keystore (for example, FILE for the sqlnet.ora file). The WALLET_ORDER column shows SINGLE if two keystores are not configured together and no migration was ever performed previously.

Table 4-1 describes how the keystore order works after you perform a migration.

Table 4-1 Keystore Order After a Migration

Type of Migration Done

WRL_TYPE

WALLET_ORDER

Description

Migration of software keystore to HSM

HSM

FILE

PRIMARY

SECONDARY

Both the HSM and software keystore are configured. The TDE master encryption key can be either in the HSM or the software keystore.

The TDE master encryption key is first searched in the HSM.

If the TDE master encryption key is not in the primary keystore (HSM), then it will be searched for in the software keystore.

All of the new TDE master encryption keys will be created in the primary keystore (in this case, the HSM).

Reverse migration of HSM to software keystore

FILE

HSM

PRIMARY

SECONDARY

Both the HSM and software keystore are configured. The TDE master encryption key can be either in the HSM or the software keystore.

The TDE master encryption key is first searched for in the software keystore.

If the TDE master encryption key is not present in the primary (that is, software) keystore, then it will be searched for in the HSM.

All of the new TDE master encryption keys will be created in the primary keystore (in this case, the software keystore).

Migration of Keystores to and from Oracle Key Vault

You can use Oracle Key Vault to migrate both software and hardware keystores to and from Oracle Key Vault. This enables you to manage the keystores centrally, and then share the keystores as necessary with other TDE-enabled databases in your enterprise.

Oracle Key Vault enables you to upload a keystore to a container called a virtual wallet, and then create a new virtual wallet from the contents of previously uploaded Oracle keystores. For example, suppose you previously uploaded a keystore that contains 5 keys. You can create a new virtual wallet that consists of only 3 of these keys. You then can download this keystore to another TDE-enabled database. This process does not modify the original keystore.

In addition to Oracle keystores, Oracle Key Vault enables you to securely share other security objects, such as credential files and Java keystores, across the enterprise. It prevents the loss of keys and keystores due to forgotten passwords or accidentally deleted keystores. You can use Oracle Key Vault with products other than TDE: Oracle Real Application Security (Oracle RAC), Oracle Active Data Guard, and Oracle GoldenGate. Oracle Key Vault facilitates the movement of encrypted data using Oracle Data Pump and Oracle Transportable Tablespaces.

See Also:

Oracle Key Vault Administrator's Guide

Closing a Keystore

You can manually close software and hardware keystores.

Topics:

- About Closing Keystores

- Closing a Software Keystore

- Closing a Hardware Keystore

See Also:

- "Step 3: Open the Software Keystore"

- "Step 3: Open the Hardware Keystore"

About Closing Keystores

After you open a keystore, it remains open until you shut down the database instance.

When you restart the database instance, then auto-login and local auto-login software keystores automatically open when required (that is, when the TDE master encryption key must be accessed). However, software password-based and hardware keystores do not automatically open. You must manually open them again before you can use them.

When you close a software or hardware keystore, you disable all of the encryption and decryption operations on the database. Hence, a database user or application cannot perform any operation involving encrypted data until the keystore is reopened.

When you re-open a keystore after closing it, the keystore contents are reloaded back into the database. Thus, if the contents had been modified (such as during a migration), the database will have the latest keystore contents.

You can check the status of a keystore, whether it is open or closed, by querying the STATUS column of the V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET view.

The following data operations will fail if the keystore is not accessible:

- SELECT data from an encrypted column

- INSERT data into on an encrypted column

- CREATE a table with encrypted columns

- CREATE an encrypted tablespace

See Also:

"How Open and Close Operations for a Keystore Work in a Multitenant Environment"

Closing a Software Keystore

You can manually close password-based software keystores, auto-login software keystores, and local auto-login software keystores.

In the case of an auto-login keystore, which opens automatically when it is accessed, manually close it if you moved it to a new location. You do this if you are changing your configuration from an auto-login keystore to a password-based keystore: you move out the auto-login keystore, and then close the auto-login keystore.

1. Log in to the database instance as a user who has been granted the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT or SYSKM privilege.
In a multitenant environment, you must close the keystore first in the root. Afterward, all keystores in the PDBs will close as well. For example, to log in to the root:

sqlplus sec_admin as syskm
Enter password: password
Connected.

To find the available PDBs, query the DBA_PDBS data dictionary view. To check the current PDB, run the show con_name command.

2. Run the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SQL statement.

- For a password-based software keystore, use the following syntax:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET KEYSTORE CLOSE [IDENTIFIED BY software_keystore_password] [CONTAINER = ALL | CURRENT];

In this specification:

- software_keystore_password is the password of the user who created the keystore.

- CONTAINER is for use in a multitenant environment. Enter ALL to close the keystore in all of the PDBs in this multitenant container database (CDB), or CURRENT for the current PDB. If you run this ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement in the root, then all of the keystores on all of the PDBs will close, irrespective of whether CONTAINER is set to ALL or to CURRENT.

- For an auto-login or local auto-login software keystore, use the following SQL statement:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET KEYSTORE CLOSE;

You do not need to specify a password for this statement.

Closing a keystore disables all of the encryption and decryption operations. Any attempt to encrypt or decrypt data or access encrypted data results in an error.

See Also:

"Step 3: Open the Software Keystore"

Closing a Hardware Keystore

To close a hardware keystore, you must use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement with the SET KEYSTORE CLOSE clause.

1. Log into the database instance as a user who has been granted the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT or SYSKM privilege.
In a multitenant environment, log in to the root. For example:

sqlplus c##sec_admin as syskm
Enter password: password
Connected.

2. Run the following SQL statement:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET KEYSTORE CLOSE IDENTIFIED BY "user_id:password" [CONTAINER = ALL | CURRENT];

In this specification:

- user_id:password is the user ID and password that was created in Step 3 in "Step 2: Configure the Hardware Security Module". Enclose this setting in double quotation marks (" ") and separate user_id and password with a colon (:).

- CONTAINER is for use in a multitenant environment. Enter ALL to close the keystore in all of the PDBs in this CDB, or CURRENT for the current PDB. If you run this ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement in the root, then all of the keystores on all of the PDBs will close, irrespective of whether CONTAINER is set to ALL or to CURRENT.

For example:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET KEYSTORE CLOSE IDENTIFIED BY "psmith:password";

See Also:

"Step 3: Open the Hardware Keystore"

Using a Software Keystore That Resides on Automatic Storage Management Volumes

You can store a software keystore on an Automatic Storage Management (ASM) disk group.

- Edit the sqlnet.ora file to use the location of an ASM disk group specified using the ASM file naming convention when you configure the DIRECTORY setting in the ENCRYPTION_WALLET_LOCATION setting. That is, you must use the plus sign (+) notation for the ASM file name.

For example:

ENCRYPTION_WALLET_LOCATION=
(SOURCE=(METHOD=FILE)(METHOD_DATA=
(DIRECTORY=+disk1/mydb/wallet)))

If you must move or merge software keystores between a regular file system and an ASM file system, then you can use the same keystore merge statements described in "Merging Software Keystores".

To manage keystores in an ASM environment, you can use the ASMCMD utility.

See Also:

- "Configuring the sqlnet.ora File for a Software Keystore Location"

- Oracle Database Storage Administrator's Guide for detailed information about using the ASMCMD utility

Backup and Recovery of Encrypted Data

For software keystores, you cannot access encrypted data without the TDE master encryption key.

Because the TDE master encryption key is stored in the keystore, you should periodically back up the software keystore in a secure location. You must back up a copy of the keystore whenever you set a new TDE master encryption key or perform any operation that writes to the keystore.

Do not back up the software keystore in the same location as the encrypted data. Back up the software keystore separately. This is especially true when you use the auto-login keystore, which does not require a password to open. In case the backup tape is lost, a malicious user should not be able to get both the encrypted data and the keystore.

Oracle Recovery Manager (Oracle RMAN) does not back up the software keystore as part of the database backup. When using a media manager such as Oracle Secure Backup with Oracle RMAN, Oracle Secure Backup automatically excludes auto-open keystores (the cwallet.sso files). However, it does not automatically exclude encryption keystores (the ewallet.p12 files). It is a good practice to add the following exclude data set statement to your Oracle Secure Backup configuration:

exclude name *.p12

This setting instructs Oracle Secure Backup to exclude the encryption keystore from the backup set.

If you lose the software keystore that stores the TDE master encryption key, then you can restore access to encrypted data by copying the backed-up version of the keystore to the appropriate location. If you archived the restored keystore after the last time that you reset the TDE master encryption key, then you do not need to take any additional action.

If the restored software keystore does not contain the most recent TDE master encryption key, then you can recover old data up to the point when the TDE master encryption key was reset by rolling back the state of the database to that point in time. All of the modifications to encrypted columns after the TDE master encryption key was reset are lost.

See Also:

Oracle Database Backup and Recovery User's Guide for information about recovering a database

Deletion of Keystores

Do not delete keystores, particularly if a keystore is in use. You can find if a keystore is in use by querying the WRL_PARAMETER column of the V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET view after you open the keystore.

The reason you should not delete a keystore is because the keystore contains a list of all of the keys that were used for the database. Deleting the keystore deletes these keys, and could result in the loss of encrypted data. Even if you decrypted all of the data in your database, you still should not delete the keystore, because the TDE master encryption key in the keystore is also used for other Oracle Database features, such as off-lined tablespaces, Oracle Recovery Manager, and Oracle Secure Backup.

The exception is in the case of software auto-login (or auto-login local) keystores. If you do not want to use this type of keystore, then ideally you should move it to a secure directory. Only delete an auto-login keystore if you are sure that it comes from a specific password-based software keystore and that this keystore is available. The keystore should be available and known.

Managing the TDE Master Encryption Key

You can manage the TDE master encryption key in several ways, such as creating it for future use, activating it, working with the master key attributes, setting and resetting it in the keystore, and exporting and importing it.

Topics:

- Creating TDE Master Encryption Keys for Later Use

- Activation of TDE Master Encryption Keys

- TDE Master Encryption Key Attribute Management

- Creating Custom TDE Master Encryption Key Attributes for Reporting Purposes

- Setting and Resetting the TDE Master Encryption Key in the Keystore

- Exporting and Importing the TDE Master Encryption Key

- Management of TDE Master Encryption Keys Using Oracle Key Vault

Creating TDE Master Encryption Keys for Later Use

You can create a TDE master encryption key that can be activated at a later date.

Topics:

- About Creating a TDE Master Encryption Key for Later Use

- Creating a TDE Master Encryption Key for Later Use

- Example: Creating a TDE Master Encryption Key in a Single Database

- Example: Creating a TDE Master Encryption Key in All of the PDBs

About Creating a TDE Master Encryption Key for Later Use

You can create a TDE master encryption key that can be activated at a later date by using the CREATE KEY clause of the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SQL statement. You then can activate this key on the same database or export it to another database and activate it there.

This method of TDE master encryption key creation is useful in a multitenant environment when you must re-create the TDE master encryption keys. The CREATE KEY clause enables you to use a single SQL statement to generate a new TDE master encryption key for all of the PDBs within a multitenant environment. The creation time of the new TDE master encryption key is later than the activation of the TDE master encryption key that is currently in use. Hence, the creation time can serve as a reminder to all of the PDBs to activate the most recently created TDE master encryption key as soon as possible.

Creating a TDE Master Encryption Key for Later Use

To create a TDE master encryption key for use later on, you must open the keystore and then use the ADMINSTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement with the CREATE KEY clause.

1. Log in to the database instance as a user who has been granted the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT or SYSKM privilege.
In a multitenant environment, log in to the root. For example:

sqlplus c##sec_admin as syskm
Enter password: password
Connected.

2. Ensure that the keystore is open.
You can query the STATUS column of the V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET view to find if the keystore is open. If you find that you must open the keystore, then see the following sections:

- "Step 3: Open the Software Keystore"

- "Step 3: Open the Hardware Keystore"

3. Run the following SQL statement:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT CREATE KEY [USING TAG 'tag'] IDENTIFIED BY keystore_password [WITH BACKUP [USING 'backup_identifier']] [CONTAINER = (ALL|CURRENT)];

In this specification:

- tag is the associated attribute and information that you define. Enclose this setting in single quotation marks (' ').

- keystore_password is the mandatory keystore password that you used when you created the original keystore. It is case sensitive.

- WITH BACKUP backs up the TDE master encryption key in the same location as the key, as identified by the WRL_PARAMETER column of the V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET view. To find the key locations for all of the database instances, query the GV$ENCRYPTION_WALLET view.
You must back up password-based software keystores. You do not need to back up auto-login or local auto-login software keystores. Optionally, include the USING backup_identifier clause to add a description of the backup. Enclose backup_identifier in single quotation marks (' ').

- CONTAINER is for use in a multitenant environment. Enter ALL to set the encryption key in all of the PDBs in this CDB, or CURRENT for the current PDB.

4. If necessary, activate the TDE master encryption key.
See "Activation of TDE Master Encryption Keys".

Example: Creating a TDE Master Encryption Key in a Single Database

You can use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT CREATE KEY USING TAG SQL statement to create a TDE master encryption key in a single database.

Example 4-4 shows how to create a TDE master encryption key in a single database. After you run this statement, a TDE master encryption key with the tag definition is created in the keystore for that database. You can query the TAG column of the V$ENCRYPTION_KEYS view for the identifier of the newly created key. You can query the CREATION_TIME column to find the most recently created key, which would be the key that you created from this statement. You can export this key to another database if you want or activate it locally later on, as described in "Activation of TDE Master Encryption Keys".

Example 4-4 Creating a TDE Master Encryption Key in a Single Database

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT CREATE KEY USING TAG
'source:admin@source;target:db1@target'
IDENTIFIED BY password WITH BACKUP;

keystore altered.

Example: Creating a TDE Master Encryption Key in All PDBs

You can use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT CREATE KEY USING TAG SQL statement to create a TDE master encryption key in all PDBs.

Example 4-5 shows how to create a TDE master encryption key in all of the PDBs in a multitenant environment. After you run this statement, a TDE master encryption key is created in each PDB. You can find the identifiers for these keys as follows:

- Log in to the PDB and then query the TAG column of the V$ENCRYPTION_KEYS view.

- Log in to the root and then query the INST_ID and TAG columns of the GV$ENCRYPTION_KEYS view.

You also can check the CREATION_TIME column of these views to find the most recently created key, which would be the key that you created from this statement. After you create the keys, you can individually activate the keys in each of the PDBs.

Example 4-5 Creating a TDE Master Encryption Key in All of the PDBs

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT CREATE KEY USING TAG
'scope:all pdbs;description:Create Key for ALL PDBS'
IDENTIFIED BY password WITH BACKUP CONTAINER=ALL;

keystore altered.

Activation of TDE Master Encryption Keys

After you activate a TDE master encryption key, it can be used.

Topics:

- About Activating TDE Master Encryption Keys

- Activating a TDE Master Encryption Key

- Example of Activating a TDE Master Encryption Key

About Activating TDE Master Encryption Keys

You can activate a previously created or imported TDE master encryption key by using the ACTIVATE KEY clause of the ADMINSTER KEY MANAGEMENT SQL statement.

After you activate the key, it is available for use. The key will be used to protect all of the column keys and all of the tablespace encryption keys. If you have deployed a logical standby database, then you must export the TDE master encryption keys after recreating them, and then import them into the standby database. You can have the TDE master encryption key in use on both the primary and the standby databases. To do so, you must activate the TDE master encryption key after you import it to the logical standby database.

Activating a TDE Master Encryption Key

To activate a TDE master encryption key, you must open the keystore and then use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement with the USE KEY clause.

1. Log in to the database instance as a user who has been granted the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT or SYSKM privilege.
In a multitenant environment, log in to the root. For example:

sqlplus c##sec_admin as syskm
Enter password: password
Connected.

2. Ensure that the keystore is open.
You can query the STATUS column of the V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET view to find if the keystore is open. If you find that you must open the keystore, see the following sections:

- "Step 3: Open the Software Keystore"

- "Step 3: Open the Hardware Keystore"

3. Query the KEY_ID column of the V$ENCRYPTION_KEYS view to find the key identifier.
For example:

SELECT KEY_ID FROM V$ENCRYPTION_KEYS;

KEY_ID
----------------------------------------------------
ARaHD762tUkkvyLgPzAi6hMAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

4. Run the following SQL statement:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT USE KEY 'key_identifier' [USING TAG 'tag']
IDENTIFIED BY keystore_password [WITH BACKUP [USING 'backup_identifier']];

In this specification:

- key_identifier is the key identifier that you find from querying the KEY_ID column of the V$ENCRYPTION_KEYS view. Enclose this setting in single quotation marks (' ').

- tag is the associated attributes and information that you define. Enclose this setting in single quotation marks (' ').

- keystore_password is the mandatory keystore password that you used when you created the original keystore.

- WITH BACKUP backs up the TDE master encryption key in the same location as the key, as identified by the WRL_PARAMETER column of the V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET view. To find the key locations for all of the database instances, query the GV$ENCRYPTION_WALLET view.
You must back up password-based software keystores. You do not need to back up auto-login or local auto-login software keystores. Optionally, include the USING backup_identifier clause to add a description of the backup. Enclose backup_identifier in single quotation marks (' ').

- CONTAINER is for use in a multitenant environment. Enter ALL to set the encryption key in all of the PDBs in this CDB, or CURRENT for the current PDB.

Example: Activating a TDE Master Encryption Key

You can use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SQL statement to activate a TDE master encryption key.

Example 4-6 shows how to activate a previously imported TDE master encryption key and then update its tag. This key is activated with the current database time stamp and time zone.

Example 4-6 Activating a TDE Master Encryption Key

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT USE KEY
'ARaHD762tUkkvyLgPzAi6hMAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA'
USING TAG 'quarter:second;description:Activate Key on standby'
IDENTIFIED BY password WITH BACKUP;

keystore altered.

TDE Master Encryption Key Attribute Management

Master encryption key attributes store information about the TDE master encryption key.

Topics:

- TDE Master Encryption Key Attributes

- Finding the TDE Master Encryption Key That Is in Use

TDE Master Encryption Key Attributes

Master encryption key attributes include detailed information about the TDE master encryption key.

The information contains the following types:

- Key time stamp information: Internal security policies and compliance policies usually determine the key rotation frequency. You should expire keys when they reach the end of their lifetimes and then generate new keys. Time stamp attributes such as key creation time and activation time help you to determine the key age accurately, and automate key generation.
The V$ENCRYPTION_KEYS view includes columns such as CREATION_TIME and ACTIVATION_TIME. See Oracle Database Reference for a complete description of the V$ENCRYPTION_KEYS view.

- Key owner information: Key owner attributes help you to determine the user who created or activated the key. These attributes can be important for security, auditing, and tracking purposes. Key owner attributes also include key use information, such as whether the key is used for standalone TDE operations or used in a multitenant environment.
The V$ENCRYPTION_KEYS view includes columns such as CREATOR, CREATOR_ID, USER, USER_ID, and KEY_USE.

- Key source information: Keys often must be moved between databases for operations such as import-export operations and Data Guard-related operations. Key source attributes enable you to track the origin of each key. You can track whether a key was created locally or imported, and the database name and instance number of the database that created the key. In a multitenant environment, you can track the PDB where the key was created.
The V$ENCRYPTION_KEYS view includes columns such as CREATOR_DBNAME, CREATOR_DBID, CREATOR_INSTANCE_NAME, CREATOR_INSTANCE_NUMBER, CREATOR_PDBNAME, and so on.

- Key usage information: Key usage information determines the database or PDB where the key is being used. It also helps determine whether a key is in active use or not.
The V$ENCRYPTION_KEYS view includes columns such as ACTIVATING_DBNAME, ACTIVATING_DBID, ACTIVATING_INSTANCE_NAME, ACTIVATING_PDBNAME, and so on.

- User-defined information and other information: When creating a key, you can tag it with information using the TAG option. Each key contains important information such as whether or not it has been backed up.
The V$ENCRYPTION_KEYS view includes columns such as KEY_ID, TAG, and other miscellaneous columns, for example BACKED_UP.

Finding the TDE Master Encryption Key That Is in Use

A TDE master encryption key that is in use is the key that was activated most recently for the database. In a multitenant environment, the master key in use of the PDB is the one that was activated most recently for that PDB.

- To find the master key, query the V$ENCRYPTION_KEYS dynamic view.

- To find the master key in use in a non-CDB:

SELECT KEY_ID
FROM V$ENCRYPTION_KEYS
WHERE ACTIVATION_TIME = (SELECT MAX(ACTIVATION_TIME)
FROM V$ENCRYPTION_KEYS
WHERE ACTIVATING_DBID = (SELECT DBID FROM V$DATABASE));

- To find the master key in use in a CDB:

SELECT KEY_ID
FROM V$ENCRYPTION_KEYS
WHERE ACTIVATION_TIME = (SELECT MAX(ACTIVATION_TIME)
FROM V$ENCRYPTION_KEYS
WHERE ACTIVATING_PDBID = SYS_CONTEXT('USERENV', 'CON_ID'));

Creating Custom TDE Master Encryption Key Attributes for Reporting Purposes

Custom TDE master encryption key attributes enable you to defined attributes that are specific to your needs.

Topics:

- About Creating Custom Attribute Tags

- Creating a Custom Attribute Tag

About Creating Custom Attribute Tags

Attribute tags enable you to monitor specific activities users perform, such as accessing a particular terminal ID.

By default, Oracle Database defines a set of attributes that describe various characteristics of the TDE master encryption keys that you create, such as the creation time, database in which the TDE master encryption key is used, and so on. These attributes are captured by the V$ENCRYPTION_KEY dynamic view.

You can create custom attributes that can be captured by the TAG column of the V$ENCRYPTION_KEYS dynamic view. This enables you to define behaviors that you may want to monitor, such as users who perform activities on encryption keys. The tag can encompass multiple attributes, such as session IDs from a specific terminal.

Creating a Custom Attribute Tag

To create a custom attribute tag, you must use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement with the SET TAG clause.

1. Log in to the database instance as a user who has been granted the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT or SYSKM privilege.
In a multitenant environment, log in to the root. For example:

sqlplus c##sec_admin as syskm
Enter password: password
Connected.

2. If necessary, query the TAG column of the V$ENCRYPTION_KEY dynamic view to find a listing of existing tags for the TDE master encryption keys.
When you create a new tag for a TDE master encryption key, it overwrites the existing tag for that TDE master encryption key.

3. Create the tag as follows:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET TAG 'tag' FOR 'master_key_identifier'
IDENTIFIED BY keystore_password
[WITH BACKUP [USING 'backup_identifier']];

In this specification

- tag is the associated attributes or information that you define. Enclose this information in single quotation marks (' ').

- master_key_identifier identifies the TDE master encryption key for which the tag is set. To find a list of TDE master encryption key identifiers, query the KEY_ID column of the V$ENCRYPTION_KEYS dynamic view.

- keystore_password is the password that was used to create the keystore.

- backup_identifier defines the tag values. Enclose this setting in single quotation marks (' ') and separate each value with a colon.

For example, to create a tag that uses two values, one to capture a specific session ID and the second to capture a specific terminal ID:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET ENCRYPTION KEY USING TAG
'sessionid=3205062574:terminal=xcvt'
IDENTIFIED BY keystore_password WITH BACKUP;

keystore altered.

Both the session ID (3205062574) and terminal ID (xcvt) can derive their values by using either the SYS_CONTEXT function with the USERENV namespace, or by using the USERENV function. For a full list of predefined parameters for the USERENV namespace in the SYS_CONTEXT function, see Oracle Database SQL Language Reference.

After you create the tag for a TDE master encryption key, its name should appear in the TAG column of the V$ENCRYPTION_KEYS view for that TDE master encryption key. If you create a tag for the secret, then the tag appears in the SECRET_TAG column of the V$CLIENT_SECRETS view. If you create a secret with a tag, then the tag appears in the SECRET_TAG column of the V$CLIENT_SECRETS view.

See Also:

"Storing Oracle GoldenGate Secrets in a Keystore" for information about creating secrets

Setting and Resetting the TDE Master Encryption Key in the Keystore

You can set and reset the TDE master encryption key for both software keystores and hardware keystores.

Topics:

- About Setting and Resetting the TDE Master Encryption Key in the Keystore

- Creating and Backing Up a TDE Master Encryption Key and Applying a Tag to It

- About Resetting or Rotating (REKEY) the TDE Master Encryption Key

- Resetting or Rotating (REKEY) the TDE Master Encryption Key

About Setting and Resetting the TDE Master Encryption Key in the Keystore

You can set and reset the TDE master encryption key for both software password-based and hardware keystores.

The TDE master encryption key is stored in an external security module (keystore), and it is used to protect the TDE table keys and tablespace encryption keys. By default, the TDE master encryption key is a system-generated random value created by Transparent Data Encryption (TDE).

Use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement to set or reset (REKEY) the TDE master encryption key.

Before you can encrypt or decrypt database columns or tablespaces, you must generate a TDE master encryption key. Oracle Database uses the same TDE master encryption key for both TDE column encryption and TDE tablespace encryption. The following sections explain how to create a basic TDE master encryption key:

- Master encryption key for software keystores: "Step 4: Set the Software TDE Master Encryption Key"

- Master encryption key for hardware keystores: "Step 4: Set the Hardware Keystore TDE Master Encryption Key"

Creating and Backing Up a TDE Master Encryption Key and Applying a Tag to It

To create and back up a TDE master encryption key and then apply a tag to it, you must use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement with the SET ENCRYPTION KEY, IDENTIFIED BY, and WITH BACKUP clauses.

1. Log in to the database instance as a user who has been granted the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT or SYSKM privilege.
In a multitenant environment, log in to the root or to the PDB. For example:

sqlplus sec_admin@hrpdb as syskm
Enter password: password
Connected.

To find the available PDBs, query the DBA_PDBS data dictionary view. To check the current PDB, run the show con_name command.

2. Run the following SQL statement:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET ENCRYPTION KEY [USING TAG 'tag']
IDENTIFIED BY keystore_password WITH BACKUP
[USING 'backup_identifier'] [CONTAINER = ALL | CURRENT];

In this specification:

- tag is the tag that you want to create. Enclose this tag in single quotation marks (' '). (See "Creating Custom TDE Master Encryption Key Attributes for Reporting Purposes" for more information about tags.)

- keystore_password is either software_keystore_password or user_id:password. The user_id:password setting is the hardware keystore user ID and password that was created in Step 3 under "Step 2: Configure the Hardware Security Module". As with software passwords, it is case sensitive. You must enclose the password string in double quotation marks (" "). Separate user_id and password with a colon (:).

- WITH BACKUP backs the TDE master encryption key up in the same location as the key, as identified by the WRL_PARAMETER column of the V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET view. To find the WRL_PARAMETER values for all of the database instances, query the GV$ENCRYPTION_WALLET view.
You must back up password-based software keystores. You do not need to use it for auto-login or local auto-login software keystores. Optionally, include the USING backup_identifier clause to add a description of the backup. Enclose this identifier in single quotation marks (' ').

- CONTAINER is for use in a multitenant environment. Enter ALL to set the encryption key in all of the PDBs in this CDB, or CURRENT for the current PDB.

For example:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET ENCRYPTION KEY USING TAG 'backups"
IDENTIFIED BY password WITH BACKUP USING 'hr.emp_key_backup';

keystore altered.

Oracle Database uses the keystore in the keystore location specified by the ENCRYPTION_WALLET_LOCATION parameter in the sqlnet.ora file to store the TDE master encryption key. See "About the Keystore Location in the sqlnet.ora File" for information about how the ENCRYPTION_WALLET_LOCATION parameter works in the sqlnet.ora file.

About Resetting or Rotating (REKEY) the TDE Master Encryption Key

Oracle Database uses a unified master encryption key for both TDE column encryption and TDE tablespace encryption.

When you reset (or REKEY) the TDE master encryption key for TDE column encryption, the master encryption key for TDE tablespace encryption also is reset. Reset or regenerate the master encryption key only if it was compromised or as per the security policies of the organization. This process deactivates the previous TDE master encryption key.

You cannot change the TDE master encryption key or reset a TDE master encryption key for an auto-login keystore. Because auto-login keystores do not have a password, an administrator or a privileged user can change the keys without the knowledge of the security officer. However, if both the auto-login and the password-based keystores are present in the configured location (as set in the sqlnet.ora file), then when you reset the TDE master encryption key, a TDE master encryption key is added to both the auto-login and password-based keystores. If the auto-login keystore is in use in a location that is different from that of the password-based keystore, then you must re-create the auto-login keystore.

Note:

You cannot add new information to auto-login keystores separately.

Resetting or Rotating (REKEY) the TDE Master Encryption Key

To reset (or rotate, rekey) a TDE master encryption key, you must open the keystore and then use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement with the SET ENCRYPTION KEY clause.

1. Log in to the database instance as a user who has been granted the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT or SYSKM privilege.
In a multitenant environment, log in to the root or to the PDB. For example, to log in to a PDB called hrpdb:

sqlplus sec_admin@hrpdb as syskm
Enter password: password
Connected.

To find the available PDBs, query the DBA_PDBS data dictionary view. To check the current PDB, run the show con_name command.

2. Ensure that the keystore is open.
Query the STATUS column of the V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET view to find if the keystore is open. If the keystore is closed, then see the following sections for information about opening it:

- "Step 3: Open the Software Keystore"

- "Step 3: Open the Hardware Keystore"

3. If you are resetting the TDE master encryption key for a keystore that has auto login enabled, then ensure that both the auto login keystore, identified by the .sso file, and the encryption keystore, identified by the .p12 file, are present.
You can find the location of these files by querying the WRL_PARAMETER column of the V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET view. To find the WRL_PARAMETER values for all of the database instances, query the GV$ENCRYPTION_WALLET view.

4. Rotate the TDE master encryption key by using the following statement:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET ENCRYPTION KEY [USING TAG 'tag'] IDENTIFIED BY keystore_password WITH BACKUP [USING 'backup_identifier'] [CONTAINER = ALL | CURRENT];

In this specification:

- tag is the associated attributes and information that you define. Enclose this setting in single quotation marks (' ').

- keystore_password is the mandatory keystore password that you created when you created the keystore in "Step 2: Create the Software Keystore".

- WITH BACKUP creates a backup of the keystore. You must use this option for password-based and hardware keystores. Optionally, you can use the USING clause to add a brief description of the backup. Enclose this description in single quotation marks (' '). This identifier is appended to the named keystore file (for example, ewallet_time-stamp_emp_key_backup.p12). Follow the file naming conventions that your operating system uses.

- CONTAINER is for use in a multitenant environment. Enter ALL to open the keystore in all of the PDBs in this CDB, or CURRENT for the current PDB.

For example:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET KEY IDENTIFIED BY password WITH BACKUP USING 'emp_key_backup';

keystore altered.

For better security and to meet compliance regulations, periodically rotate (change) the TDE master encryption key. This process deactivates the previous TDE master encryption key, creates a new TDE master encryption key, and then activates it. You can check the keys that were created recently by querying the CREATION_TIME column in the V$ENCRYPTION_KEYS view. To find the keys that were activated recently, query the ACTIVATION_TIME column in the V$ENCRYPTION_KEYS view.

Exporting and Importing the TDE Master Encryption Key

You can export and import the TDE master encryption key in a variety ways, to suite the needs of other Oracle features, such as a multitenant environment or Oracle Data Guard.

Topics:

- About Exporting and Importing the TDE Master Encryption Key

- About Exporting TDE Master Encryption Keys

- Exporting a TDE Master Encryption Key

- Example: Exporting a TDE Master Encryption Key by Using a Subquery

- Example: Exporting a List of TDE Master Encryption Key Identifiers to a File

- Example: Exporting All TDE Master Encryption Keys of the Database

- About Importing TDE Master Encryption Keys

- Importing a TDE Master Encryption Key

- Example: Importing a TDE Master Encryption Key

- How Keystore Merge Differs from TDE Master Encryption Key Export or Import

See Also:

"Using Oracle Data Pump to Encrypt Entire Dump Sets"

About Exporting and Importing the TDE Master Encryption Key

Oracle Database features such as transportable tablespaces and Oracle Data Pump move data that is possibly encrypted between databases.

In addition, CDBs contain PDBs that can be plugged in or unplugged. These are some common scenarios in which you can choose to export and import TDE master encryption keys to move them between source and target keystores. For Data Guard (Logical Standby), you must copy the keystore that is in the primary database to the standby database. Instead of merging the primary database keystore with the standby database, you can export the TDE master encryption key that is in use and then import it to the standby database. Moving transportable tablespaces that are encrypted between databases requires that you export the TDE master encryption key at the source database and then import it into the target database.

About Exporting TDE Master Encryption Keys

You can execute the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT EXPORT SQL statement to export a TDE master encryption key or a set of keys from a keystore, and subsequently import it into another keystore.

A TDE master encryption key is exported together with its key identifier and key attributes. The exported keys are protected with a password (secret) in the export file.

You can specify the TDE master encryption keys to be exported by using the WITH IDENTIFIER clause of the ADMINSITER KEY MANAGENT EXPORT statement. To export the TDE master encryption keys, you can either specify their key identifiers as a comma-separated list, or you can specify a query that enumerates their key identifiers. Be aware that Oracle Database executes the query determining the key identifiers within the current user's rights and not with definer's rights.

If you omit the WITH IDENTIFER clause, then all of the TDE master encryption keys of the database are exported.

In a consolidated database, you can export the keys from within a PDB for a PDB to be unplugged. In this scenario, you can only use the WITH IDENTIFIER clause in the root and not in a PDB. See "Exporting and Importing TDE Master Encryption Keys for a PDB" for information about exporting keys in a PDB.

To export a set of TDE master encryption keys:

See Also:

"Exporting and Importing TDE Master Encryption Keys for a PDB" for an example of using this statement in a multitenant environment

Exporting a TDE Master Encryption Key

To export a TDE master encryption key, you must open the keystore and then use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement with the EXPORT [ENCRYPTION] KEYS WITH SECRET clause.

1. Log in to the database instance as a user who has been granted the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT or SYSKM privilege.
In a multitenant environment, log in to the root. For example:

sqlplus c##sec_admin as syskm
Enter password: password
Connected.

2. If necessary, open the keystore.
See "Step 3: Open the Software Keystore" for information about opening a keystore.

3. Run the following SQL statement to export a set of TDE master encryption keys:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT EXPORT [ENCRYPTION] KEYS
WITH SECRET "export_secret"
TO 'file_path' IDENTIFIED BY software_keystore_password
[WITH IDENTIFIER IN 'key_id1', 'key_id2', 'key_idn' | (SQL_query)];

In this specification:

- export_secret is a password that you can specify to encrypt the export the file that contains the exported keys. Enclose this secret in double quotation marks (" "), or you can omit the quotation marks if the secret has no spaces.

- file_path is the complete path and name of the file to which the keys must be exported. Enclose this path in single quotation marks (' ').

- software_keystore_password is the password of the keystore containing the keys.

- key_id1, key_id2, key_idn is a string of one or more TDE master encryption key identifiers for the TDE master encryption key being exported. Separate each key identifier with a comma and enclose each of these key identifiers in single quotation marks (' '). To find a list of TDE master encryption key identifiers, query the KEY_ID column of the V$ENCRYPTION_KEYS dynamic view.

- SQL_query is a query that fetches a list of the TDE master encryption key identifiers. It should return only one column which contains the TDE master encryption key identifiers. This query is executed with current user rights.

Example: Exporting a TDE Master Encryption Key by Using a Subquery

You can use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT EXPORT ENCRYPTION KEYS SQL statement to export a TDE master encryption key by using a subquery.

Example 4-8 shows how to export TDE master encryption keys whose identifiers are fetched by a query to a file called export.exp. The TDE master encryption keys in the file are encrypted using the secret my_secret. The SELECT statement finds the identifiers for the TDE master encryption keys to be exported.

Be aware that in a multitenant environment, the WITH IDENTIFIER clause is not supported when you try to import or export keys inside a PDB. It is only permitted in the root. See "Exporting and Importing TDE Master Encryption Keys for a PDB" for information about exporting keys in a PDB.

Example 4-7 Exporting a List of TDE Master Encryption Key Identifiers to a File

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT EXPORT ENCRYPTION KEYS WITH SECRET "my_secret"
TO '/TDE/export.exp' IDENTIFIED BY password
WITH IDENTIFIER IN 'AdoxnJ0uH08cv7xkz83ovwsAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA',
'AW5z3CoyKE/yv3cNT5CWCXUAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA';

keystore altered.

Example: Exporting a List of TDE Master Encryption Key Identifiers to a File

You can use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT EXPORT ENCRYPTION KEYS WITH SECRET SQL statement to export a list of TDE master encryption key identifiers to a file.

Example 4-7 shows how to export TDE master encryption keys by specifying their identifiers as a list, to a file called export.exp. Master encryption keys in the file are encrypted using the secret my_secret. The identifiers of the TDE master encryption key to be exported are provided as a comma-separated list.

Example 4-8 Exporting TDE Master Encryption Key Identifiers by Using a Subquery

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT EXPORT ENCRYPTION KEYS WITH SECRET "my_secret"
TO '/etc/TDE/export.exp' IDENTIFIED BY password
WITH IDENTIFIER IN (SELECT KEY_ID FROM V$ENCRYPTION_KEYS WHERE ROWNUM <3);

keystore altered.

Example: Exporting All TDE Master Encryption Keys of the Database

You can use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT EXPORT ENCRYPTION KEYS SQL statement to export all TDE master encryption keys of a database.

Example 4-9 shows how to export all of the TDE master encryption keys of the database to a file called export.exp. The TDE master encryption keys in the file are encrypted using the secret my_secret.

Example 4-9 Exporting All of the TDE Master Encryption Keys of the Database

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT EXPORT ENCRYPTION KEYS WITH SECRET "my_secret" TO
'/etc/TDE/export.exp' IDENTIFIED BY password;

keystore altered.

About Importing TDE Master Encryption Keys

You can execute the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT IMPORT statement to import exported TDE master encryption keys from a key export file into a target keystore.

You cannot re-import TDE master encryption keys that have already been imported.

In a consolidated database, you can import the keys from within a PDB for a PDB to be plugged. See "Exporting and Importing TDE Master Encryption Keys for a PDB" for information about exporting keys in a PDB.

Importing a TDE Master Encryption Key

To import a TDE master encryption key, you must open the keystore and then use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement with the IMPORT [ENCRYPTION] KEYS WITH SECRET clause.

1. Log in to the database instance as a user who has been granted the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT or SYSKM privilege.
In a multitenant environment, log in to the root. The following command logs user c##sec_admin into the root.

sqlplus c##sec_admin as syskm
Enter password: password
Connected.

2. If necessary, open the keystore.
See "Step 3: Open the Software Keystore" for information about opening a keystore.

3. Run the following SQL statement:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT IMPORT [ENCRYPTION] KEYS WITH SECRET "import_secret"  FROM 'file_name' | FROM 'file_name' IDENTIFIED BY software_keystore_password [WITH BACKUP [USING 'backup_identifier']];

In this specification:

- import_secret is the same password that was used to encrypt the keys during the export operation. Enclose this secret in double quotation marks (" "), or you can omit the quotation marks if the secret has no spaces.

- file_name is the complete path and name of the file from which the keys need to be imported. Enclose this setting in single quotation marks (' ').

- software_keystore_password is the password of the software keystore where the keys are being imported.

- WITH BACKUP must be used in case the target keystore was not backed up before the import operation. backup_identifier is an optional string that you can provide to identify the keystore backup. Enclose this setting in single quotation marks (' ').

Example: Importing a TDE Master Encryption Key

You can use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT IMPORT KEYS SQL statement to import a TDE master encryption key.

Example 4-10 shows how to import the TDE master encryption key identifiers that are stored in the file export.exp and encrypted with the secret my_secret.

Example 4-10 Importing TDE Master Encryption Key Identifiers from an Export File

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT IMPORT KEYS WITH SECRET "my_secret"
FROM '/etc/TDE/export.exp' IDENTIFIED BY password WITH BACKUP;

keystore altered.

How Keystore Merge Differs from TDE Master Encryption Key Export or Import

The keystore merge operation differs from the TDE master encryption key export and import operations.

Even though both the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT MERGE statement and the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT EXPORT and IMPORT statements eventually move the TDE master encryption keys from one keystore to the next, there are differences in how these two statements function.

- The MERGE statement merges two keystores whereas the EXPORT and IMPORT statements export the keys to a file or import the keys from a file. The keystore is different from the export file, and the two cannot be used interchangeably. The export file is not a keystore and cannot be configured to be used with a database as a keystore. Similarly, the IMPORT statement cannot extract the TDE master encryption keys from the keystore.

- The MERGE statement merges all of the TDE master encryption keys of the specified keystores where as the EXPORT and IMPORT statements can be selective.

- The EXPORT and IMPORT statements require the user to provide both a location (filepath) and the file name of the export file, whereas the MERGE statement only takes in the location of the keystores.

- The file name of the keystores is fixed and is determined by the MERGE operation and can be either ewallet.p12 or cwallet.sso. The file names for the export files used in the EXPORT the IMPORT statements are specified by the user.

- The keystores on Automatic Storage Management (ASM) disk groups or regular file systems can be merged with MERGE statements. The export files used in the EXPORT and the IMPORT statements can only be a regular operating system file and cannot be located on an ASM disk group.

- The keystores merged using the MERGE statement do not need to be configured or in use with the database. The EXPORT statement can only export the keys from a keystore that is configured and in use with the database and is also open when the export is done. The IMPORT statement can only import the keys into a keystore that is open, configured, and in use with the database.

- The MERGE statement never modifies the metadata associated with the TDE master encryption keys. The EXPORT and IMPORT operations can modify the metadata of the TDE master encryption keys when required, such as during a PDB plug operation.

Management of TDE Master Encryption Keys Using Oracle Key Vault

You can use Oracle Key Vault to manage and share TDE master encryption keys across an enterprise.

Oracle Key Vault securely stores the keys in a central repository, along with other security objects such as credential files and Java keystores, and enables you to share these objects with other TDE-enabled databases.

See Also:

- "Migration of Keystores to and from Oracle Key Vault" for additional benefits of using Oracle Key Vault

- Oracle Key Vault Administrator's Guide

Storing Secrets Used by Oracle Database

Secrets are data that support internal Oracle Database features and enable external clients such as Oracle GoldenGate to be integrated into the database.

Topics:

- About Storing Oracle Database Secrets in a Keystore

- Storage of Oracle Database Secrets in a Software Keystore

- Example: Adding an HSM Password to a Software Keystore

- Example: Changing an HSM Password That Is Stored as a Secret in a Software Keystore

- Example: Deleting an HSM Password That Is Stored as a Secret in a Software Keystore

- Storage of Oracle Database Secrets in a Hardware Keystore

- Example: Adding an Oracle Database Secret to a Hardware Keystore

- Example: Changing an Oracle Database Secret in a Hardware Keystore

- Example: Deleting an Oracle Database Secret in a Hardware Keystore

- Configuring Auto-Login Hardware Security Modules

About Storing Oracle Database Secrets in a Keystore

You can use keystores to store secrets that support internal Oracle Database features and to enable the integration of external clients such as Oracle GoldenGate.

The secret key must be a string adhering to Oracle identifier rules. You can add, update, or delete a client secret in an existing keystore. The Oracle GoldenGate Extract process must have data encryption keys to decrypt the data that is in data files and in REDO or UNDO logs. Keys are encrypted with shared secrets when you share the keys between an Oracle database and an Oracle GoldenGate client. The software keystore stores the shared secrets.

Depending on your site's requirements, you may require automated open keystore operations even when a hardware security module is configured. For this reason, the hardware security module password can be stored in a software auto-login keystore, which enables the auto-login capability for the hardware security module. The Oracle Database side can also store the credentials for the database to log in to an external storage server in the software keystore.

You can store Oracle Database secrets in both software keystores and hardware keystores:

- Software keystores: You can store secrets in software password-based, auto-login, and local auto-login software keystores. If you want to store secrets in an auto-login (or auto-login local) keystore, then note the following:

- If the software auto-login keystore is in the same location as its corresponding password-based software keystore, then the secrets are added automatically.

- If the software auto-login keystore is in a different location from its corresponding password-based software keystore, then you must create the auto-login keystore again from the password-based keystore, and keep the two keystores in synchronization.

- Hardware keystores: You can store secrets in standard hardware security modules.

See Also:

- "Storage of Oracle Database Secrets in a Hardware Keystore"

- "Configuring Auto-Login Hardware Security Modules"

Storage of Oracle Database Secrets in a Software Keystore

To configure an Oracle Database secret in a software keystore, you must use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT ADD SECRET|UPDATE SECRET|DELETE CLIENT SQL statement to add secrets, update secrets, and delete secrets from a keystore.

As with all of the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statements, you must have the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT or the SYSKM administrative privilege. In a multitenant environment, run the statement in the root.

- Adding a secret: Use the following syntax:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT
ADD SECRET 'secret' FOR CLIENT 'client_identifier' [USING TAG 'tag']
IDENTIFIED BY keystore_password [WITH BACKUP [USING 'backup_identifier'];

- Updating a secret: Use the following syntax:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT
UPDATE SECRET 'secret' FOR CLIENT 'client_identifier' [USING TAG 'tag']
IDENTIFIED BY keystore_password [WITH BACKUP [USING 'backup_identifier'];

- Deleting a secret: Use the following syntax:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT
DELETE SECRET FOR CLIENT 'client_identifier'
IDENTIFIED BY keystore_password [WITH BACKUP [USING 'backup_identifier'];

In all of these statements, the specification is as follows:

- secret is the client secret key to be stored, updated, or deleted. Enclose this setting in single quotation marks (' ') or omit the quotation marks if the secret has no spaces.

- client_identifier is an alphanumeric string used to identify the secret key. client_identifier does not have a default value. Enclose this setting in single quotation marks (' ').

- tag is an optional, user-defined description for the secret key to be stored. You can use tag with the ADD and UPDATE operations. Enclose this setting in single quotation marks (' '). This tag appears in the SECRET_TAG column of the V$CLIENT_SECRETS view. See "Creating Custom TDE Master Encryption Key Attributes for Reporting Purposes" for more information about tags.

- keystore_password is the password for the keystore.

- WITH BACKUP is required in case the keystore was not backed up before the ADD, UPDATE, or DELETE operation. backup_identifier is an optional user-defined description for the backup. Enclose backup_identifier in single quotation marks (' ').

Example: Adding an HSM Password to a Software Keystore

You can use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT ADD SECRET SQL statement to add an HSM password to a software keystore.

Example 4-11 shows how to add a hardware security module (HSM) password as a secret to a software keystore.

Example 4-11 Adding an Oracle Database Secret to a Software Keystore

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT
ADD SECRET 'psmith:password' FOR CLIENT 'HSM_PASSWORD'
USING TAG 'HSM credentials' IDENTIFIED BY password WITH BACKUP;

Example: Changing an HSM Password That Is Stored as a Secret in a Software Keystore

You can use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT UPDATE SECRET SQL statement to change an HSM password that is stored as a secret in a software keystore.

Example 4-12 shows how to change an HSM password that is stored as a secret in a software keystore.

Example 4-12 Changing an Oracle Database Secret to a Software Keystore

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT
UPDATE SECRET admin_password FOR CLIENT 'admin@myhost'
USING TAG 'new_host_credentials' IDENTIFIED BY software_keytore_password;

Example: Deleting an HSM Password That Is Stored as a Secret in a Software Keystore

You can use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT DELETE SECRET SQL statement to delete HSM passwords that are stored as secrets in a software keystore.

Example 4-13 shows how to delete an HSM password that is stored as a secret in the software keystore.

Example 4-13 Deleting an Oracle Database Secret in a Software Keystore

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT
DELETE SECRET FOR CLIENT 'HSM_PASSWORD'
IDENTIFIED BY password WITH BACKUP;

Storage of Oracle Database Secrets in a Hardware Keystore

To store an Oracle Database secret in a hardware keystore, you must use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT ADD SECRET|UPDATE SECRET|DELETE CLIENT SQL statement to add secrets, update secrets, and delete secrets from the keystore.

As with all ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statements, you must have the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT or the SYSKM administrative privilege. In a multitenant environment, run the statement in the root.

Note:

Before you attempt to add a secret to a hardware security module, ensure that it has PDCS#11 data object support.

- Adding a secret: Use the following syntax:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT ADD SECRET 'secret'
FOR CLIENT 'client_identifier' [USING TAG 'tag']
IDENTIFIED BY "user_id:password";

- Updating a secret: Use the following syntax:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT UPDATE SECRET 'secret'
FOR CLIENT 'client_identifier' [USING TAG 'tag']
IDENTIFIED BY "user_id:password";

- Deleting a secret: Use the following syntax:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT DELETE SECRET FOR CLIENT 'client_identifier'
IDENTIFIED BY "user_id:password";

In all of these statements, the specification as follows:

- secret is the client secret key to be stored, updated, or deleted. Enclose this setting in double quotation marks (' ') or omit the quotation marks if the secret has no spaces.

- client_identifier is an alphanumeric string used to identify the secret key. client_identifier does not have a default value. Enclose this setting in single quotation marks (' ').

- tag is an optional, user-defined description for the secret key to be stored. You can use tag with the ADD and UPDATE operations. Enclose this setting in single quotation marks (' '). This tag appears in the SECRET_TAG column of the V$CLIENT_SECRETS view. See "Creating Custom TDE Master Encryption Key Attributes for Reporting Purposes" for more information about tags.

- user_id:password is the password for the hardware keystore. Separate the user_id and the password with a colon, and enclose this setting in double quotation marks (" ").

Example: Adding an Oracle Database Secret to a Hardware Keystore

You can use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT ADD SECRET SQL statement to add an Oracle Database secret to a hardware keystore.

Example 4-14 shows how to add a password for a user to a hardware keystore.

Example 4-14 Adding an Oracle Database Secret to a Hardware Keystore

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT ADD SECRET 'password'
FOR CLIENT 'admin@myhost' USING TAG 'myhost admin credentials'
IDENTIFIED BY "psmith:password";

Example: Changing an Oracle Database Secret in a Hardware Keystore

You can use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT UPDATE SECRET SQL statement to change an Oracle Database secret in a hardware keystore.

Example 4-15 shows how to change a password that is stored as a secret in a hardware keystore.

Example 4-15 Changing an Oracle Database Secret in a Hardware Keystore

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT UPDATE SECRET 'password2'
FOR CLIENT 'admin@myhost' USING TAG 'New host credentials'
IDENTIFIED BY "psmith:password";

Example: Deleting an Oracle Database Secret in a Hardware Keystore

You can use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT DELETE SECRET FOR CLIENT SQL statement to delete an Oracle Database secret that is in a hardware keystore.

Example 4-16 shows how to delete a hardware security module password that is stored as a secret in the hardware keystore.

Example 4-16 Deleting an Oracle Database Secret in a Hardware Keystore

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT DELETE SECRET FOR CLIENT 'admin@myhost'
IDENTIFIED BY "psmith:password";

Configuring Auto-Login Hardware Security Modules

A hardware security module can be configured to use the auto-login capability.

Topics:

- About Configuring Auto-Login Hardware Security Modules

- Configuring an Auto-Login Hardware Security Module

About Configuring Auto-Login Hardware Security Modules

An auto-login hardware security module stores the hardware security module credentials in an auto-login keystore.

This configuration reduces the security of the system as a whole. However, this configuration does support unmanned or automated operations and is useful in deployments where automatic re-login of the hardware security module is necessary.

To enable the auto-login capability for a hardware security module, you must store the hardware security module credentials in the hardware keystore.

Configuring an Auto-Login Hardware Security Module

To configure an auto-login hardware security module, you must use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement to perform the configuration, and then modify the sql.net.ora file.

1. Ensure that you configured the TDE hardware keystore.
See "Configuring a Hardware Keystore" for more information.

2. Close the hardware security module if it is open. (You can check the status of whether a keystore is open or closed by querying the STATUS column of the V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET view.)
For example:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET KEYSTORE CLOSE IDENTIFIED BY "psmith:password";

See "Closing a Hardware Keystore" for more information.

3. If you have not migrated from a software keystore, then create the software keystore with the hardware keystore password in the appropriate location (for example, /etc/ORACLE/WALLETS/orcl).

For example:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT CREATE KEYSTORE '/etc/ORACLE/WALLETS/orcl'
IDENTIFIED BY "psmith:password";

4. If you have migrated and are using an auto-login software keystore in a specific location (for example, /etc/ORACLE/WALLETS/HSM), then create the software password keystore with the hardware keystore password from the auto-login keystore.

For example:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT CREATE KEYSTORE '/etc/ORACLE/WALLETS/orcl' IDENTIFIED BY "psmith:password";

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT
MERGE KEYSTORE '/etc/ORACLE/WALLETS/HSM' -- Example keystore path
INTO EXISTING KEYSTORE '/etc/ORACLE/WALLETS/HSM' -- Example keystore location
IDENTIFIED BY "psmith:password" WITH BACKUP;

The location of the keystore for the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT merge statement does not need to be the location of the keystore in use.

5. Reconfigure the sqlnet.ora file and add the keystore location of the software keystore created in Step 3 or Step 4 to the DIRECTORY setting of the ENCRYPTION_WALLET_LOCATION setting.
For example:

ENCRYPTION_WALLET_LOCATION=
(SOURCE=(METHOD=FILE)(METHOD_DATA=
(DIRECTORY=/etc/ORACLE/WALLETS/orcl)))

See "About the Keystore Location in the sqlnet.ora File" for more information about how Oracle Database finds the keystore location.

6. Open the software keystore.
For example:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET KEYSTORE OPEN IDENTIFIED BY software_keystore_password;

7. Add or update the secret in the software keystore.
The secret is the hardware security module password and the client is the HSM_PASSWORD. HSM_PASSWORD is an Oracle-defined client name that is used to represent the HSM password as a secret in the software keystore.

For example:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT ADD SECRET "user_id:password"
FOR CLIENT "HSM_PASSWORD" IDENTIFIED BY software_keystore_password
WITH BACKUP;

8. Close the software keystore.
For example:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET KEYSTORE CLOSE IDENTIFIED BY software_keystore_password;

9. Create (or re-create) the auto-login keystore.

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT CREATE AUTO_LOGIN KEYSTORE
FROM KEYSTORE '/etc/ORACLE/WALLETS/orcl/hsm' -- Keystore location
IDENTIFIED BY software_keystore_password;

10. Update the sqlnet.ora file to use the hardware security module location.
For example:

ENCRYPTION_WALLET_LOCATION=
(SOURCE=(METHOD=HSM)(METHOD_DATA=
(DIRECTORY=/etc/ORACLE/WALLETS/orcl)))

At this stage, the next time that a TDE operation executes, the hardware security module auto-login keystore opens automatically.

Storing Oracle GoldenGate Secrets in a Keystore

You can store Oracle GoldenGate secrets in Transparent Data Encryption keystores.

Topics:

- About Storing Oracle GoldenGate Secrets in Keystores

- Requirements for Capturing TDE in Oracle GoldenGate Extract Classic Capture Mode

- Configuring Transparent Data Encryption Keystore Support for Oracle GoldenGate

See Also:

Oracle Key Vault Administrator's Guide about how to use TDE with Oracle GoldenGate in an Oracle Key Vault environment

About Storing Oracle GoldenGate Secrets in Keystores

You can use the keystore to store secret keys for tools and external clients such as Oracle GoldenGate.

The secret key must be a string adhering to Oracle identifier rules. You can add, update, or delete a client secret in an existing keystore. This section describes how to capture Transparent Data Encryption encrypted data in the Oracle GoldenGate Extract (Extract) process using classic capture mode.

TDE support when Extract is in classic capture mode requires the exchange of the following keys:

- TDE support for Oracle GoldenGate in the classic capture mode of the Extract process requires that an Oracle database and the Extract process share the secret to encrypt sensitive information being exchanged. The shared secret is stored securely in the Oracle database and Oracle GoldenGate domains. The shared secret is stored in the software keystore or the HSM as the database secret.

- The decryption key is a password known as the shared secret that is stored securely in the Oracle database and Oracle GoldenGate domains. Only a party that has possession of the shared secret can decrypt the table and redo log keys.

After you configure the shared secret, Oracle GoldenGate Extract uses the shared secret to decrypt the data. Oracle GoldenGate Extract does not handle the TDE master encryption key itself, nor is it aware of the keystore password. The TDE master encryption key and password remain within the Oracle database configuration.

Oracle GoldenGate Extract only writes the decrypted data to the Oracle GoldenGate trail file, which Oracle GoldenGate persists during transit. You can protect this file using your site's operating system standard security protocols, as well as the Oracle GoldenGate AES encryption options. Oracle GoldenGate does not write the encrypted data to a discard file (specified with the DISCARDFILE parameter). The word ENCRYPTED will be written to any discard file that is in use.

Oracle GoldenGate does require that the keystore be open when processing encrypted data. There is no performance effect of Oracle GoldenGate feature on the TDE operations.

Requirements for Capturing TDE in Oracle GoldenGate Extract Classic Capture Mode

You should ensure that you meet the requirements for Oracle GoldenGate Extract to support Transparent Data Encryption capture.

The requirements are as follows:

- To maintain high security standards, ensure that the Oracle GoldenGate Extract process runs as part of the Oracle user (the user that runs the Oracle database). That way, the keys are protected in memory by the same privileges as the Oracle user.

- Run the Oracle GoldenGate Extract process on the same computer as the Oracle database installation.

Configuring Transparent Data Encryption Keystore Support for Oracle GoldenGate

To configure Transparent Data Encryption keystore support for Oracle GoldenGate, you must decide on a shared secret for the keystore, configure the Oracle database, store the shared secret in the keystore, and then set the shared secret in the extract process.

Topics:

- Step 1: Decide on a Shared Secret for the Keystore

- Step 2: Configure Oracle Database for TDE Support for Oracle GoldenGate

- Step 3: Store the TDE GoldenGate Shared Secret in the Keystore

- Step 4: Set the TDE Oracle GoldenGate Shared Secret in the Extract Process

Step 1: Decide on a Shared Secret for the Keystore

You should not share this password with any user other than trusted administrators who are responsible for configuring Transparent Data Encryption to work with Oracle GoldenGate Extract.

- Decide on a shared secret (that is, a password) that meets or exceeds Oracle Database password standards.

See Also:

Oracle Database Security Guide for guidelines on creating secure passwords

Step 2: Configure Oracle Database for TDE Support for Oracle GoldenGate

To configure Oracle Database for TDE support for Oracle GoldGate, you must install the DBMS_INTERNAL_CLKM PL/SQL package and then grant the EXECUTE privilege to the user who will use this package.

1. Log in to the database instance as user SYS with the SYSDBA administrative privilege.
For example

sqlplus sys as sysdba
Enter password: password
Connected.

2. In a multitenant environment, connect to the appropriate PDB.
For example:

CONNECT SYS@hrpdb AS SYSDBA
Enter password: password

To find the available PDBs, query the DBA_PDBS data dictionary view. To check the current PDB, run the show con_name command.

3. Load the Oracle Database-supplied DBMS_INTERNAL_CLKM PL/SQL package.
For example:

@?/app/oracle/product/12.1/rdbms/admin/prvtclkm.plb

The prvtclkm.plb file also enables Oracle GoldenGate to extract encrypted data from an Oracle database.

4. Grant the EXECUTE privilege on the DBMS_INTERNAL_CLKM PL/SQL package to the Oracle GoldenGate Extract database user.
For example:

GRANT EXECUTE ON DBMS_INTERNAL_CLKM TO psmith;

This procedure enables the Oracle database and Oracle GoldenGate Extract to exchange information.

5. Exit SQL*Plus.

Step 3: Store the TDE GoldenGate Shared Secret in the Keystore

To store a TDE GoldenGate shared secret in a keystore, you must use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement with the ADD SECRET and WITH CLIENT clauses.

1. Ensure that you have configured the TDE software or hardware keystore.
See the following sections for more information:

- "Configuring a Software Keystore"

- "Configuring a Hardware Keystore"

2. Set the Oracle GoldenGate-Transparent Data Encryption key in the keystore.
The syntax is as follows:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT ADD|UPDATE|DELETE SECRET 'secret'
FOR CLIENT 'secret_identifier' [USING TAG 'tag']
IDENTIFIED BY keystore_password [WITH BACKUP [USING 'backup_identifier']];

In this specification:

- secret is the client secret key to be stored, updated, or deleted. Enclose this setting in single quotation marks ('  ').

- secret_identifier is an alphanumeric string used to identify the secret key. secret_identifier does not have a default value. Enclose this setting in single quotation marks (' ').

- tag is an optional, user-defined description for the secret key to be stored. tag can be used with the ADD and UPDATE operations. Enclose this setting in single quotation marks (' '). This tag appears in the SECRET_TAG column of the V$CLIENT_SECRETS view. See "Creating Custom TDE Master Encryption Key Attributes for Reporting Purposes" for more information about tags.

- keystore_password is the password for the keystore that is configured.

- WITH BACKUP is required in case the keystore was not backed up before the ADD, UPDATE or DELETE operation. backup_identifier is an optional user-defined description for the backup. Enclose backup_identifier in single quotation marks (' ').

The following example adds a secret key to the keystore and creates a backup in the same directory as the keystore:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT ADD SECRET 'some_secret'
FOR CLIENT 'ORACLE_GG' USING TAG 'GoldenGate Secret'
IDENTIFIED BY password WITH BACKUP USING 'GG backup';

3. Verify the entry that you just created.
For example:

SELECT CLIENT, SECRET_TAG FROM V$CLIENT_SECRETS WHERE CLIENT = 'ORACLEGG';

CLIENT   SECRET_TAG
-------- ------------------------------------------
ORACLEGG some_secret

4. Switch the log files.

CONNECT / AS SYSDBA

ALTER SYSTEM SWITCH LOGFILE;

See Oracle Database Administrator's Guide for more information about switching log files.

See Also:

"How Transparent Data Encryption Works with Oracle Real Application Clusters" if you are having problems using this procedure in an Oracle RAC environment

Step 4: Set the TDE Oracle GoldenGate Shared Secret in the Extract Process

To set the TDE Oracle GoldenGate shared secret in the extract process, you must use the GoldenGate Software Command Interface (GGSCI) utility.

1. Start the GGSCI utility.
For example:

ggsci

2. In the GGSCI utility, run the ENCRYPT PASSWORD command to encrypt the shared secret so that it is obfuscated within the Oracle GoldenGate Extract parameter file.

ENCRYPT PASSWORD shared_secret algorithm ENCRYPTKEY keyname

In this specification:

- shared_secret is the clear-text shared secret that you created in "Step 1: Decide on a Shared Secret for the Keystore". This setting is case sensitive.

- algorithm is one of the following values to specify AES encryption:

- AES128

- AES192

- AES256

- keyname is the logical name of the encryption key in the ENCKEYS lookup file. Oracle GoldenGate uses this name to look up the actual key in the ENCKEYS file.

For example:

ENCRYPT PASSWORD password AES256 ENCRYPTKEY mykey1

3. In the Oracle GoldenGate Extract parameter file, set the DBOPTIONS parameter with the DECRYPTPASSWORD option.
As input, supply the encrypted shared secret and the Oracle GoldenGate-generated or user-defined decryption key.

DBOPTIONS DECRYPTPASSWORD shared_secret algorithm ENCRYPTKEY keyname

In this specification:

- shared_secret is the clear-text shared secret that you created in "Step 1: Decide on a Shared Secret for the Keystore". This setting is case sensitive.

- algorithm is one of the following values to specify AES encryption:

- AES128

- AES192

- AES256

- keyname is the logical name of the encryption key in the ENCKEYS lookup file.
For example:

DBOPTIONS DECRYPTPASSWORD AACAAAAAAAAAAAIALCKDZIRHOJBHOJUH AES256 ENCRYPTKEY mykey1

5 General Considerations of Using Transparent Data Encryption

When you use Transparent Data Encryption, you should consider factors such as the compression and data deduplication of encrypted data, security, performance and storage overheads, modifying your applications to use Transparent Data Encryption, how the interface compares with previous releases, and using TDE with PKI encryption.

Topics:

- Compression and Data Deduplication of Encrypted Data

- Security Considerations for Transparent Data Encryption

- Performance and Storage Overhead of Transparent Data Encryption

- Modifying Your Applications for Use with Transparent Data Encryption

- How ALTER SYSTEM and orapki Map to ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT

- Using Transparent Data Encryption with PKI Encryption

Compression and Data Deduplication of Encrypted Data

With tablespace encryption, Oracle Database compresses tables and indexes before encrypting the tablespace.

This ensures that you receive the maximum space and performance benefits from compression, while also receiving the security of encryption at rest. In the CREATE TABLESPACE SQL statement, include both the COMPRESS and ENCRYPT clauses.

With column encryption, Oracle Database compresses the data after it encrypts the column. This means that compression will have minimal effectiveness on encrypted columns. There is one notable exception: if the column is a SecureFiles LOB, and the encryption is implemented with SecureFiles LOB Encryption, and the compression (and possibly deduplication) are implemented with SecureFiles LOB Compression & Deduplication, then compression is performed before encryption. Similar to the CREATE TABLESPACE statement for tablespace encryption, include both the COMPRESS and ENCRYPT clauses.

See Also:

- Oracle Database Backup and Recovery User's Guide for more information about the Advanced Compression Option

- Oracle Database SecureFiles and Large Objects Developer's Guide for information about SecureFiles LOB storage

- Oracle Database SecureFiles and Large Objects Developer's Guide for information about SecureFiles Compression

Security Considerations for Transparent Data Encryption

As with all Oracle Database features, you should consider security when you create TDE policies.

Topics:

- Transparent Data Encryption General Security Advice

- Transparent Data Encryption Column Encryption-Specific Advice

- Managing Security for Plaintext Fragments

Transparent Data Encryption General Security Advice

Security considerations for Transparent Data Encryption (TDE) operate within the broader area of total system security.

Follow these general guidelines:

- Identify the degrees of sensitivity of data in your database, the protection that they need, and the levels of risk to be addressed. For example, highly sensitive data requiring stronger protection can be encrypted with the AES256 algorithm. A database that is not as sensitive can be protected with no salt or the nomac option to enable performance benefits.

- Evaluate the costs and benefits that are acceptable to data and keystore protection. Protection of keys determines the type of keystore to be used: auto-login software keystores, password-based software keystores, or hardware keystores.

- Consider having separate security administrators for TDE and for the database.

- Consider having a separate and exclusive keystore for TDE.

- Implement protected back-up procedures for your encrypted data.

Transparent Data Encryption Column Encryption-Specific Advice

Additional security considerations apply to normal database and network operations when using TDE.

Encrypted column data stays encrypted in the data files, undo logs, redo logs, and the buffer cache of the system global area (SGA). However, data is decrypted during expression evaluation, making it possible for decrypted data to appear in the swap file on the disk. Privileged operating system users can potentially view this data.

Column values encrypted using TDE are stored in the data files in encrypted form. However, these data files may still contain some plaintext fragments, called ghost copies, left over by past data operations on the table. This is similar to finding data on the disk after a file was deleted by the operating system.

Managing Security for Plaintext Fragments

You should remove old plaintext fragments that can appear over time.

Old plaintext fragments may be present for some time until the database overwrites the blocks containing such values. If privileged operating system users bypass the access controls of the database, then they might be able to directly access these values in the data file holding the tablespace.

To minimize this risk:

1. Create a new tablespace in a new data file.
You can use the CREATE TABLESPACE statement to create this tablespace.

2. Move the table containing encrypted columns to the new tablespace. You can use the ALTER TABLE.....MOVE statement.
Repeat this step for all of the objects in the original tablespace.

3. Drop the original tablespace.
You can use the DROP TABLESPACE tablespace INCLUDING CONTENTS KEEP DATAFILES statement. Oracle recommends that you securely delete data files using platform-specific utilities.

4. Use platform-specific and file system-specific utilities to securely delete the old data file. Examples of such utilities include shred (on Linux) and sdelete (on Windows).

Performance and Storage Overhead of Transparent Data Encryption

The performance of Transparent Data Encryption can vary. There are no storage overheads, but TDE column encryption has some associated storage overhead.

Topics:

- Performance Overhead of Transparent Data Encryption

- Storage Overhead of Transparent Data Encryption

See Also:

"Performance Questions About Transparent Data Encryption"

Performance Overhead of Transparent Data Encryption

Transparent Data Encryption tablespace encryption has small associated performance overhead. The actual performance impact on applications can vary.

TDE column encryption affects performance only when data is retrieved from or inserted into an encrypted column. No reduction in performance occurs for operations involving unencrypted columns, even if these columns are in a table containing encrypted columns. Accessing data in encrypted columns involves small performance overhead, and the exact overhead you observe can vary.

The total performance overhead depends on the number of encrypted columns and their frequency of access. The columns most appropriate for encryption are those containing the most sensitive data.

Enabling encryption on an existing table results in a full table update like any other ALTER TABLE operation that modifies table characteristics. Keep in mind the potential performance and redo log impact on the database server before enabling encryption on a large existing table.

A table can temporarily become inaccessible for write operations while encryption is being enabled, TDE table keys are being rekeyed, or the encryption algorithm is being changed. You can use online table redefinition to ensure that the table is available for write operations during such procedures.

If you enable TDE column encryption on a very large table, then you may need to increase the redo log size to accommodate the operation.

Encrypting an indexed column takes more time than encrypting a column without indexes. If you must encrypt a column that has an index built on it, you can try dropping the index, encrypting the column with NO SALT, and then re-creating the index.

If you index an encrypted column, then the index is created on the encrypted values. When you query for a value in the encrypted column, Oracle Database transparently encrypts the value used in the SQL query. It then performs an index lookup using the encrypted value.

Note:

If you must perform range scans over indexed, encrypted columns, then use TDE tablespace encryption in place of TDE column encryption.

See Also:

- "Creating an Encrypted Column in an External Table"

- Oracle Database Administrator's Guide for information about redefining tables online

Storage Overhead of Transparent Data Encryption

TDE tablespace encryption has no storage overhead. However, TDE column encryption has some associated storage overhead.

Encrypted column data must have more storage space than plaintext data. In addition, TDE pads out encrypted values to multiples of 16 bytes. This means that if a credit card number requires 9 bytes for storage, then an encrypted credit card value will require an additional 7 bytes.

Each encrypted value is also associated with a 20-byte integrity check. This does not apply if you have encrypted columns using the NOMAC parameter. If data was encrypted with salt, then each encrypted value requires an additional 16 bytes of storage.

The maximum storage overhead for each encrypted value is from 1 to 52 bytes.

See Also:

"Creating an Encrypted Column in an External Table"

Modifying Your Applications for Use with Transparent Data Encryption

You can modify your applications to use Transparent Data Encryption.

1. Configure the software or hardware keystore for TDE, and then set the master encryption key.
See the following sections for more information:

- "Configuring a Software Keystore"

- "Configuring a Hardware Keystore"

2. Verify that the master encryption key was created by querying the KEY_ID column of the V$ENCRYPTION_KEYS view.

3. Identify the sensitive columns (such as those containing credit card data) that require Transparent Data Encryption protection.

4. Decide whether to use TDE column encryption or TDE tablespace encryption.
See the following sections for more information:

- "How Transparent Data Encryption Column Encryption Works"

- "How Transparent Data Encryption Tablespace Encryption Works"

5. Open the keystore.
See the following sections for more information:

- "Step 3: Open the Software Keystore"

- "Step 3: Open the Hardware Keystore"

6. Encrypt the columns or tablespaces.
See the following sections for more information:

- "Encrypting Columns in Tables"

- "Encrypting Tablespaces"

How ALTER SYSTEM and orapki Map to ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT

Many of the statements from the ALTER SYSTEM SQL statement correspond to the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement.

Table 5-1 compares the Transparent Data Encryption usage of the ALTER SYSTEM statement and the orapki utility from previous releases with the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement.

Table 5-1 How ALTER SYSTEM and orapki Map to ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT

Behavior

ALTER SYSTEM or orapki

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT

Creating a keystore

For software keystores (called wallets in previous releases):

ALTER SYSTEM SET ENCRYPTION KEY
["certificate_ID"] IDENTIFIED
BY keystore_password;

For hardware keystores, the keystore is available after you configure the hardware security module.

For software keystores:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT CREATE KEYSTORE
'keystore_location'
IDENTIFIED BY software_keystore_password

For hardware keystores, the keystore is available after you configure the hardware security module.

Creating an auto-login keystore

orapki wallet create -wallet
wallet_location
-auto_login [-pwd password]

For software keystores:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT CREATE [LOCAL]
AUTO_LOGIN KEYSTORE FROM KEYSTORE
'keystore_location'
IDENTIFIED BY software_keystore_password;

This type of keystore applies to software keystores only.

Opening a keystore

ALTER SYSTEM SET ENCRYPTION
WALLET OPEN IDENTIFIED BY
password;

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET KEYSTORE
OPEN IDENTIFIED BY keystore_password
[CONTAINER = ALL | CURRENT];

Closing a keystore

ALTER SYSTEM SET ENCRYPTION
WALLET CLOSE IDENTIFIED BY
password;

For both software and hardware keystores:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET KEYSTORE
CLOSE IDENTIFIED BY keystore_password
[CONTAINER = ALL | CURRENT];

Migrating from a hardware keystore to a software keystore

Not available

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET ENCRYPTION
KEY IDENTIFIED BY
software_keystore_password
REVERSE MIGRATE USING "user_id:password"
[WITH BACKUP [USING 'backup_identifier']];

Migrating from a software keystore to a hardware keystore

ALTER SYSTEM SET ENCRYPTION KEY
IDENTIFIED BY
"user_id:password" MIGRATE
USING wallet_password;

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET ENCRYPTION
KEY IDENTIFIED BY "user_id:password"
MIGRATE USING software_keystore_password;

Changing a keystore password

orapki wallet change_pwd
-wallet wallet_location
[-oldpwd password ]
[-newpwd password]

For password-based software keystores:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT ALTER KEYSTORE
PASSWORD IDENTIFIED BY
software_keystore_old_password
SET software_keystore_new_password
[WITH BACKUP [USING 'backup_identifier']];

For hardware keystores, you close the keystore, change it in the hardware security module interface, and then reopen the keystore.

Backing up a password-based software keystore

Not available

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT BACKUP KEYSTORE
[USING 'backup_identifier'] IDENTIFIED BY
software_keystore_password
[TO 'keystore_location'];

Merging two software keystores into a third new keystore

Not available

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT MERGE KEYSTORE
'keystore1_location' [IDENTIFIED BY
software_keystore1_password]
AND KEYSTORE 'keystore2_location'
[IDENTIFIED BY software_keystore2_password]
INTO NEW KEYSTORE 'keystore3_location'
IDENTIFIED BY software_keystore3_password;

Merging one software keystore into another existing keystore

Not available

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT MERGE KEYSTORE
'keystore1_location' [IDENTIFIED BY
software_keystore1_password]
INTO EXISTNG KEYSTORE 'keystore2_location'
IDENTIFIED BY software_keystore2_password
[WITH BACKUP [USING 'backup_identifier']];

Setting or rotating the master encryption key

For software wallets:

ALTER SYSTEM SET ENCRYPTION KEY
["certificate_ID"] IDENTIFIED
BY keystore_password;

For hardware security modules:

ALTER SYSTEM SET ENCRYPTION KEY
IDENTIFIED BY "user_id:password"

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT
SET ENCRYPTION KEY [USING TAG 'tag']
IDENTIFIED BY keystore_password
WITH BACKUP [USING 'backup_identifier']
[CONTAINER = ALL | CURRENT];

Creating a master encryption key for later user

Not available

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT CREATE KEY
[USING TAG 'tag']
IDENTIFIED BY keystore_password
[WITH BACKUP [USING 'backup_identifier']]
[CONTAINER = (ALL|CURRENT)];

Activating a master encryption key

Not available

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT USE KEY
'key_identifier' [USING TAG 'tag']
IDENTIFIED BY keystore_password
[WITH BACKUP [USING 'backup_identifier']];

Creating custom tags for master encryption keys

Not available

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET TAG 'tag'
FOR 'master_key_identifier'
IDENTIFIED BY keystore_password
[WITH BACKUP [USING 'backup_identifier']];

Exporting a master encryption key

Not available

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT
EXPORT [ENCRYPTION] KEYS
WITH SECRET "export_secret"
TO 'file_path'
IDENTIFIED BY software_keystore_password
[WITH IDENTIFIER IN
'key_id1', 'key_id2', 'key_idn' |
(SQL_query)]

Importing a master encryption key

Not available

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT
IMPORT [ENCRYPTION] KEYS
WITH SECRET "import_secret" |
FROM 'file_name'
IDENTIFIED BY software_keystore_password
[WITH BACKUP [USING 'backup_identifier']];

Storing Oracle Database secrets in a keystore

Not available

For software keystores:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT
ADD SECRET|UPDATE SECRET|DELETE SECRET
"secret" FOR CLIENT 'client_identifier'
[USING TAG'tag']
IDENTIFIED BY keystore_password
[WITH BACKUP [USING 'backup_identifier'];

For hardware keystores:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT
ADD SECRET|UPDATE SECRET|DELETE SECRET
"secret" FOR CLIENT 'client_identifier'
[USING TAG 'tag']
IDENTIFIED BY "user_id:password"
[WITH BACKUP [USING 'backup_identifier'];

Using Transparent Data Encryption with PKI Encryption

PKI encryption is deprecated, but if you are still using it, then there are several issues you must consider.

Topics:

- Software Master Encryption Key Use with PKI Key Pairs

- Transparent Data Encryption Tablespace and Hardware Keystores with PKI Encryption

- Backup and Recovery of a PKI Key Pair

Note:

The use of PKI encryption with Transparent Data Encryption is deprecated. To configure Transparent Data Encryption, use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SQL statement.

Software Master Encryption Key Use with PKI Key Pairs

A master encryption key can be an existing key pair from a PKI certificate designated for encryption.

Note the following:

- If you have already deployed PKI in your organization, then you can use PKI services such as key escrow and recovery. However, encryption using current PKI algorithms requires significantly more system resources than symmetric key encryption. Using a PKI key pair as a master encryption key may result in greater performance degradation when accessing encrypted columns in the database.

- For PKI-based keys, certificate revocation lists are not enforced because enforcing certificate revocation may lead to losing access to all of the encrypted information in the database. However, you cannot use the same certificate to create the master encryption key again.

Transparent Data Encryption Tablespace and Hardware Keystores with PKI Encryption

PKI encryption is a cryptographic system that uses two keys, a public key and a private key, to encrypt data.

You cannot use PKI-based encryption with TDE tablespace encryption or with hardware keystores.

Backup and Recovery of a PKI Key Pair

For software keystores, Transparent Data Encryption supports the use of PKI asymmetric key pairs as master encryption keys for column encryption.

This enables the database to use existing key backup, escrow, and recovery facilities from leading certificate authority vendors.

In current key escrow or recovery systems, the certificate authority with key recovery capabilities typically stores a version of the private key, or a piece of information that helps recover the private key. If the private key is lost, then you can recover the original key and certificate by contacting the certificate authority and initiating a key recovery process.

Typically, the key recovery process is automated and requires the user to present certain authenticating credentials to the certificate authority. TDE puts no restrictions on the key recovery process other than that the recovered key and its associated certificate be a PKCS#12 file that can be imported into an keystore. This requirement is consistent with the key recovery mechanisms of leading certificate authorities.

After obtaining the PKCS#12 file with the original certificate and private key, you must create an empty keystore in the same location as the previous keystore. You can then import the PKCS#12 file into the new keystore by using the same utility. Choose a strong password to protect the keystore.

After you use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statements to create the keystore and import the correct encryption keys, log in to the database and run the following ALTER SYSTEM statement at the SQL prompt to complete the recovery process:

ALTER SYSTEM SET ENCRYPTION KEY "cert_id" IDENTIFIED BY keystore_password;

In this specification:

- cert_id is the certificate ID of the certificate to be used as the master encryption key.

- keystore_password is a password that you create.

Note:

You must use the ALTER SYSTEM statement to regenerate encryption keys for PKI key pairs only. This restriction does not apply to non-PKI encryption keys.

6 Using Transparent Data Encryption with Other Oracle Features

You can use Oracle Data Encryption with a number of other Oracle features, such as Oracle Data Guard or Oracle Real Application Clusters.

Topics:

- How Transparent Data Encryption Works with Export and Import Operations

- How Transparent Data Encryption Works with Oracle Data Guard

- How Transparent Data Encryption Works with Oracle Real Application Clusters

- How Transparent Data Encryption Works with SecureFiles

- How Transparent Data Encryption Works in a Multitenant Environment

- How Transparent Data Encryption Works with Oracle Call Interface

- How Transparent Data Encryption Works with Editions

- Configuring Transparent Data Encryption to Work in a Multidatabase Environment

How Transparent Data Encryption Works with Export and Import Operations

You can use Oracle Data Pump to export and import tables that contain encrypted columns, as well as encrypt entire dump sets.

Topics:

- About Exporting and Importing Encrypted Data

- Exporting and Importing Tables with Encrypted Columns

- Using Oracle Data Pump to Encrypt Entire Dump Sets

About Exporting and Importing Encrypted Data

You can use Oracle Data Pump to export and import tables that have encrypted columns.

For both software and hardware keystores, the following points are important when you must export tables containing encrypted columns:

- Sensitive data should remain unintelligible during transport.

- Authorized users should be able to decrypt the data after it is imported at the destination.

When you use Oracle Data Pump to export and import tables containing encrypted columns, it uses the ENCRYPTION parameter to enable encryption of data in dump file sets. The ENCRYPTION parameter allows the following values:

- ENCRYPTED_COLUMNS_ONLY: Writes encrypted columns to the dump file set in encrypted format

- DATA_ONLY: Writes all of the data to the dump file set in encrypted format

- METADATA_ONLY: Writes all of the metadata to the dump file set in encrypted format

- ALL: Writes all of the data and metadata to the dump file set in encrypted format

- NONE: Does not use encryption for dump file sets

Exporting and Importing Tables with Encrypted Columns

You can export and import tables with encrypted columns using the ENCRYPTION=ENCRYPTED_COLUMNS_ONLY setting.

1. Ensure that the keystore is open before you attempt to export tables containing encrypted columns.
In a multitenant environment, if you are exporting data in a pluggable database (PDB), then ensure that the wallet is open in the PDB. If you are exporting into the root, then ensure that the wallet is open in the root.

To find if the keystore is open, query the STATUS column of the V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET view. If you must open the keystore, then run the following SQL statement:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET KEYSTORE OPEN IDENTIFIED BY software_keystore_password [CONTAINER = ALL | CURRENT];

The software_keystore_password setting is the password for the keystore. The keystore must be open because the encrypted columns must be decrypted using the TDE table keys, which requires access to the TDE master encryption key. The columns are reencrypted using a password, before they are exported.

2. Run the EXPDP command, using the ENCRYPTION_PASSWORD parameter to specify a password that is used to encrypt column data in the export dump file set.
The following example exports the employee_data table. The ENCRYPTION_PWD_PROMPT = YES setting enables you to prompt for the password interactively, which is a recommended security practice.

expdp hr TABLES=employee_data DIRECTORY=dpump_dir
DUMPFILE=dpcd2be1.dmp ENCRYPTION=ENCRYPTED_COLUMNS_ONLY
ENCRYPTION_PWD_PROMPT = YES

Password: password_for_hr

3. To import the exported data into the target database, ensure that you specify the same password that you used for the export operation, as set by the ENCRYPTION_PASSWORD parameter.
The password is used to decrypt the data. Data is reencrypted with the new TDE table keys generated in the target database. The target database must have the keystore open to access the TDE master encryption key. The following example imports the employee_data table:

impdp hr TABLES=employee_data DIRECTORY=dpump_dir
DUMPFILE=dpcd2be1.dmp
ENCRYPTION_PWD_PROMPT = YES

Password: password_for_hr

Using Oracle Data Pump to Encrypt Entire Dump Sets

Oracle Data Pump enables you to encrypt entire dump sets, as opposed to encrypting just Transparent Data Encryption columns.

While importing, you can use either the password or the keystore TDE master encryption key to decrypt the data. If the password is not supplied, then the TDE master encryption key in the keystore is used to decrypt the data. The keystore must be present and open at the target database. The open keystore is also required to reencrypt column encryption data at the target database.

You can use the ENCRYPTION_MODE=TRANSPARENT setting to transparently encrypt the dump file set with the TDE master encryption key stored in the keystore. A password is not required in this case. The keystore must be present and open at the target database, for successful decryption during import. The open keystore is also required to reencrypt column encryption data at the target database. If a keystore already exists on the target database, then you can export and import the current TDE master encryption key into the keystore of the target database.

- Use the ENCRYPTION_MODE parameter to specify the encryption mode. ENCRYPTION_MODE=DUAL encrypts the dump set using the TDE master encryption key stored in the keystore and the password provided.

For example, to use dual encryption mode to export encrypted data:

expdp hr DIRECTORY=dpump_dir1 DUMPFILE=hr_enc.dmp
ENCRYPTION=all ENCRYPTION_PASSWORD=encryption_password
ENCRYPTION_ALGORITHM=AES256 ENCRYPTION_MODE=dual

Password: password_for_hr

See Also:

- "Exporting and Importing the TDE Master Encryption Key"

- Oracle Database Utilities for details on using Oracle Data Pump and the associated encryption parameters

- "Creating an Encrypted Column in an External Table"

How Transparent Data Encryption Works with Oracle Data Guard

For both software keystores and hardware keystores, Oracle Data Guard supports Transparent Data Encryption (TDE).

If the primary database uses TDE, then each standby database in a Data Guard configuration must have a copy of the encryption keystore from the primary database. If the primary database uses TDE, then each standby database in a Data Guard configuration must have an encryption keystore with the keystore from the primary database merged into it. If you reset the TDE master encryption key in the primary database, then you must merge the keystore on the primary database that contains the TDE master encryption key to each standby database.

Note the following:

- Encrypted data in log files remains encrypted when data is transferred to the standby database. Encrypted data also stays encrypted during transit.

- TDE works with SQL*Loader direct path loads. The data loaded into encrypted columns is transparently encrypted during the direct path load.

- Materialized views work with TDE tablespace encryption. You can create both materialized views and materialized view logs in encrypted tablespaces. Materialized views also work with TDE column encryption.

See Also:

- "Merging Software Keystores"

- Oracle Data Guard Concepts and Administration more information about the use of TDE with logical standby databases

- Oracle Database Advanced Replication for more information about materialized views

- Oracle Key Vault Administrator's Guide for information about how to use TDE with Oracle Data Guard in an Oracle Key Vault environment

How Transparent Data Encryption Works with Oracle Real Application Clusters

Oracle Real Application Clusters (Oracle RAC) nodes can share software keystores. Hardware security module keystores must be shared by using a network connection. You can store software keystores on non-shared file systems in Oracle RAC.

Topics:

- About Using Transparent Data Encryption with Oracle Real Application Clusters

- Using a Non-Shared File System to Store a Software Keystore in Oracle RAC

See Also:

Oracle Key Vault Administrator's Guide for information about using TDE with Oracle RAC in an Oracle Key Vault environment

About Using Transparent Data Encryption with Oracle Real Application Clusters

For software keystores, Oracle Database enables Oracle Real Application Clusters (Oracle RAC) nodes to share the keystore. Hardware security modules use a network connection for each database instance.

This eliminates the need to manually copy and synchronize the software keystore across all of the nodes. Oracle recommends that you create the software keystore on a shared file system. This enables all of the instances to access the same shared software keystore. If you configure Oracle RAC to use Automatic Storage Management (ASM), then store the keystore on the ASM disk group.

For hardware security modules, use a network connection for each database instance. Thus, all database instances have access to the hardware security module.

Keystore operations that must be performed or synchronized on all of the instances, such as opening or closing the keystore or rekeying can be performed on any one Oracle RAC instance. The synchronization operation applies to all of the other Oracle RAC instances in the cluster. This means that when you open and close a keystore for one instance, then it opens and closes for all of the Oracle RAC instances. Similarly, a TDE master encryption key rekey operation that you perform on one database instance applies to all of the database instances. You can perform other keystore operations, such as exporting TDE master encryption keys, rotating the keystore password, merging keystores, or backing up keystores, from a single instance only.

When using a shared file system, ensure that the ENCRYPTION_WALLET_LOCATION or WALLET_LOCATION parameter setting in the sqlnet.ora file for all of the Oracle RAC instances point to the same shared software keystore location. You also must ensure security of the shared software keystore by assigning the appropriate directory permissions.

Using a Non-Shared File System to Store a Software Keystore in Oracle RAC

If you are not using a shared file system to store the software keystore, then you must copy the keystore to all of the nodes after a TDE master encryption key rekey.

If you must reset the TDE master encryption key for the database:

1. Log in to the database instance as a user who has been granted the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT or SYSKM privilege.
In a multitenant environment, log in to the root or the appropriate PDB. For example:

sqlplus sec_admin@hrpdb as syskm
Enter password: password
Connected.

2. Reset the TDE master encryption key on the first Oracle RAC node.
See "Setting and Resetting the TDE Master Encryption Key in the Keystore" for more information.

3. Copy the keystore file with the new TDE master encryption key from the first node to all of the other nodes.
To find the keystore file location, query the WRL_PARAMETER column in the V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET view. To find the WRL_PARAMETER settings for all of the database instances, query the GV$ENCRYPTION_WALLET view.

4. Close and then reopen the keystore on any node. (If you are using a multitenant container database (CDB), then run these statements in the root.)

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET KEYSTORE CLOSE IDENTIFIED BY software_keystore_password;

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET KEYSTORE OPEN IDENTIFIED BY software_keystore_password [CONTAINER = ALL | CURRENT];

Note:

Any keystore operation, such as opening or closing the keystore, performed on any one Oracle RAC instance applies to all other Oracle RAC instances. This is true even if you are not using a shared file system.

All of the Oracle RAC nodes are now configured to use the new TDE master encryption key.

See Also:

- "Step 3: Open the Software Keystore"

- "Closing a Software Keystore"

How Transparent Data Encryption Works with SecureFiles

You can use SecureFiles to store LOBS. SecureFile storage has three features: compression, deduplication, and encryption.

SecureFiles encryption uses TDE to provide the encryption facility for LOBs. When you create or alter tables, you can specify the SecureFiles encryption or LOB columns that must use the SecureFiles storage. You can enable the encryption for a LOB column by either using the current Transparent Data Encryption (TDE) syntax or by using the ENCRYPT clause as part of the LOB parameters for the LOB column. The DECRYPT option in the current syntax or the LOB parameters turn off encryption.

Topics:

- Example: Creating a SecureFiles LOB with a Specific Encryption Algorithm

- Example: Creating a SecureFiles LOB with a Column Password Specified

See Also:

Oracle Database SecureFiles and Large Objects Developer's Guide for more information about SecureFiles encryption

Example: Creating a SecureFiles LOB with a Specific Encryption Algorithm

You can use the CREATE TABLE SQL statement to create a SecureFiles LOB with encryption specified.

Example 6-1 shows how to create a SecureFiles LOB in a CREATE TABLE statement.

Example 6-1 Creating a SecureFiles LOB with a Specific Encryption Algorithm

CREATE TABLE table1 ( a BLOB ENCRYPT USING 'AES256')
LOB(a) STORE AS SECUREFILE (
CACHE
);

Example: Creating a SecureFiles LOB with a Column Password Specified

You can use the CREATE TABLE SQL statement to create a SecureFiles LOB with a column password.

Example 6-2 shows an example of creating a SecureFiles LOB that uses password protections for the encrypted column.

All of the LOBS in the LOB column are encrypted with the same encryption specification.

Example 6-2 Creating a SecureFiles LOB with a Column Password Specified

CREATE TABLE table1 (a VARCHAR2(20), b BLOB)
LOB(b) STORE AS SECUREFILE (
CACHE
ENCRYPT USING 'AES192' IDENTIFIED BY password
);

How Transparent Data Encryption Works in a Multitenant Environment

In a multitenant environment, the Transparent Data Encryption operations that you perform will depend on whether you are in the root or a PDB.

Topics:

- About Using Transparent Data Encryption in a Multitenant Environment

- Operations That Must Be Performed in Root

- Operations That Can Be Performed in Root or in a PDB

- Exporting and Importing TDE Master Encryption Keys for a PDB

- Unplugging and Plugging a PDB with Encrypted Data in a CDB

- How Open and Close Operations for a Keystore Work in a Multitenant Environment

- Finding the Keystore Status for All of the PDBs in a Multitenant Environment

About Using Transparent Data Encryption in a Multitenant Environment

You can use Transparent Data Encryption for both columns and tablespaces in a multitenant environment.

Note the following:

- The keystore that you create resides in the host multitenant environment, not within any particular PDB. Multiple PDBs can access a single keystore while running on this host. Each PDB that uses encryption has a Transparent Data Encryption TDE master encryption key stored in this keystore.

- Each PDB has its own TDE master encryption key. You must manage the TDE master encryption key for each PDB from within the PDB only, using the PDB-specific key management ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statements. From the root or a PDB, you can query the appropriate views to find information about the TDE master encryption keys of the PDBs in a CDB. For example, the PDBID column of the V$ENCYRYPTION_KEYS view indicates the PDBs to which a TDE master encryption key belongs.

- You can manage the Transparent Data Encryption TDE master encryption keys independently within the keystore for each PDB. You can rotate the TDE master encryption keys for each PDB individually. See "Exporting and Importing the TDE Master Encryption Key" for more information.

- You perform most of the keystore operations from the root. Keystore operations such as rotating a keystore password, merging keystores, and so on must be performed in the root. There are a few key management operations that you can perform within a PDB, such as opening, closing, resetting, and creating keys. The operations can also be performed for all of the PDBs from the root. Where applicable, the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement has the CONTAINER clause. Setting CONTAINER=ALL performs the action on all of the PDBs.
See the following sections for more information:

- "Operations That Must Be Performed in Root"

- "Operations That Can Be Performed in Root or in a PDB"

- If you plan to move a PDB that uses Transparent Data Encryption to a new host computer, then you must move its TDE master encryption key as well. To move the TDE master encryption key from one host computer to another, use the procedures described in "Exporting and Importing the TDE Master Encryption Key".

Operations That Must Be Performed in Root

You must perform specific ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT keystore operations only in the root.

These operations are as follows:

- Creating password-based software keystores, using the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT CREATE KEYSTORE statement

- Creating auto-login software keystores, using the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT CREATE [LOCAL] AUTO_LOGIN KEYSTORE FROM KEYSTORE statement

- Changing the software keystore password, using the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT ALTER KEYSTORE PASSWORD statement

- Merging software keystores, using the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT MERGE KEYSTORE statement

- Backing up software keystores, using the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT BACKUP KEYSTORE keystore

- Migrating from a software keystore to a hardware keystore, using the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET ENCRYPTION KEY... MIGRATE USING statement

- Reverse migrating from a hardware security module to a software keystore, using the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET ENCRYPTION KEY... REVERSE MIGRATE statement

- Adding, updating, and deleting secrets, using the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT ADD|UPDATE|DELETE SECRET statement

How the CONTAINER=ALL Setting Works for Key and Keystore Operations

You can specify the CONTAINER=ALL setting for the key and keystore operations described in this section. Specifying the CONTAINER=ALL setting performs the same operation on all of the PDBs within the CDB. Remember that you can only use the CONTAINER=ALL setting in the root. The CONTAINER clause is optional. If you omit the CONTAINER clause, then the default is CONTAINER = CURRENT.

The permitted CONTAINER=ALL operations are as follows:

- Opening a keystore. If you open the keystore using the CONTAINER=ALL setting, then the keystores on all of the associated PDBs open.

- Closing a keystore. Closing a keystore using the CONTAINER=ALL setting closes the keystores on all of the associated PDBs.

- Creating a TDE master encryption key. Creating a TDE master encryption key using the CONTAINER=ALL setting creates the key on all of the PDBs that are open. You can check the keys that were created recently by querying the CREATION_TIME column in the V$ENCRYPTION_KEYS view. You can also specify a tag with CONTAINER=ALL operation, but be aware that this operation creates the keys in all of the PDBs with the same tag. You should have individual tags for each TDE master encryption key, because the tags can help identify PDBs on which the create key operation succeeded in case of an error. You can modify the tag by using the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET TAG statement later on.

- Performing a rekey operation. Performing a rekey operation with the CONTAINER=ALL setting creates and then activates the key on all of the PDBs that are open. You can check the keys that were created recently by querying the CREATION_TIME column in the V$ENCRYPTION_KEYS view. To find the keys that were activated recently, query the ACTIVATION_TIME column in the V$ENCRYPTION_KEYS view. You can also specify a tag with CONTAINER=ALL operation, but be aware that this operation creates the keys in all of the PDBs with the same tag. The tag can also help identify PDBs on which the create key operation succeeded in case of an error. You can modify the tag by using the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET TAG statement later on.

Operations That Can Be Performed in Root or in a PDB

You can perform the some keystore operations in either the root or a PDB.

These operations are as follows:

- Opening keystores, using the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET KEYSTORE OPEN statement

- Closing keystores, using the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET KEYSTORE CLOSE statement

You can perform the following key management operations either in the root or a PDB:

- Creating a tag for the TDE master encryption key, using the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET TAG statement

- Creating a TDE master encryption key, using the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT CREATE KEY statement

- Resetting or rotating the TDE master encryption key, using the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT SET ENCRYPTION KEY statement

- Activating a TDE master encryption key, using the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT USE KEY statement

- Exporting TDE master encryption keys, using the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT EXPORT ENCRYPTION KEYS statement

- Importing TDE master encryption keys, using the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT IMPORT ENCRYPTION KEYS statement

Exporting and Importing TDE Master Encryption Keys for a PDB

To export or import TDE master encryption keys for a PDB, you use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT EXPORT and ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT IMPORT statements.

Topics:

- About Exporting and Importing TDE Master Encryption Keys for a PDB

- Exporting or Importing a TDE Master Encryption Key for a PDB

- Example: Exporting a TDE Master Encryption Key from a PDB

- Example: Importing a TDE Master Encryption Key into a PDB

About Exporting and Importing TDE Master Encryption Keys for a PDB

You can export and import any TDE master encryption key from the root in the same way that you export and import the TDE master encryption key for a non-CDB database.

You can also export and import all of the TDE master encryption keys that belong to the PDB by exporting and importing the TDE master encryption keys from within a PDB. Export and import of TDE master encryption keys in a PDB supports the PDB unplug and plug operations. During a PDB unplug and plug, all of the TDE master encryption keys that belong to a PDB, as well as the metadata, are involved. Therefore, the WITH IDENTIFIER clause of the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT EXPORT statement is not allowed when you export keys from within a PDB. The WITH IDENTIFIER clause is only permitted in the root.

Suppose you want to export TDE master encryption keys in a PDB. You must run the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT EXPORT statement without the WITH IDENTIFIER clause in the source database. For example:

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT EXPORT KEYS WITH SECRET "my_secret"
TO '/etc/TDE/export.exp'
IDENTIFIED BY password;

This ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT EXPORT operation exports not only the keys but creates metadata that is necessary for PDB environments (as well as for cloning operations).

Inside a PDB, the export operation of TDE master encryption keys exports the keys that were created or activated by a PDB with the same GUID as the PDB where the keys are being exported. Essentially, all of the keys that belong to a PDB where the export is being performed will be exported.

The importing of TDE master encryption keys from an export file within a PDB takes place only if the TDE master encryption key was exported from another PDB with the same GUID. To support the plug-in of a PDB into a CDB, the import will also import the TDE master encryption keys from an export file that contains the TDE master encryption keys of a non-CDB exported without the WITH IDENTIFIER clause. Because the PDB-specific details, such as the PDB name and database ID, can change from one CDB to the next, the PDB-specific information is modified during the import to reflect the updated PDB information.

Exporting or Importing a TDE Master Encryption Key for a PDB

To export or import a TDE master encryption for a PDB, you must open the keystore and then use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement with the EXPORT ENCRYPTION KEYS WITH SECRET or IMPORT ENCRYPTION KEYS WITH SECRET clause.

1. Log in to the PDB as a user who was granted the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT or SYSKM privilege.
For example:

sqlplus sec_admin@hr_pdb as syskm
Enter password: password
Connected.

To find the available PDBs, query the DBA_PDBS data dictionary view. To check the current PDB, run the show con_name command.

2. Ensure that the keystore is open.
You can query the STATUS column of the V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET view to find if the keystore is open.

If you find that you must open the keystore, then see "Step 3: Open the Software Keystore".

3. Perform the export or import operation, as shown in the examples in "Example: Exporting a TDE Master Encryption Key from a PDB".

Example: Exporting a TDE Master Encryption Key from a PDB

You can use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT EXPORT ENCRYPTION KEYS SQL statement to export TDE master encryption keys for a PDB.

Example 6-3 shows how to export a TDE master encryption key from the PDB hr_pdb1.

Example 6-3 Exporting a TDE Master Encryption Key from a PDB

sqlplus sec_admin@hr_pdb1 as syskm
Enter password: password
Connected.

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT EXPORT ENCRYPTION KEYS WITH SECRET "my_secret" TO '/export.p12' IDENTIFIED BY password_cdb1;

Example: Importing a TDE Master Encryption Key into a PDB

You can use the ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT IMPORT ENCRYPTION KEYS SQL statement to import a TDE master encryption key into a PDB.

Example 6-4 shows how to import a TDE master encryption key into the PDB hr_pdb2.

Example 6-4 Importing a TDE Master Encryption Key into a PDB

sqlplus sec_admin@hr_pdb2 as syskm
Enter password: password
Connected.

ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT IMPORT ENCRYPTION KEYS WITH SECRET "my_secret" FROM '/tmp/export.p12' IDENTIFIED BY password_cdb2 WITH BACKUP;

Unplugging and Plugging a PDB with Encrypted Data in a CDB

You can add or remove PDBs that have encrypted data to and from a CDB.

Topics:

- Exporting a TDE Master Encryption Key from a PDB

- Plugging a PDB That Has Encrypted Data into a CDB

Exporting a TDE Master Encryption Key from a PDB

You can unplug a PDB from one CDB and then plug it into another CDB.

The database that was unplugged contains data files and other associated files. The export file is another file that forms part of the unplugged PDB files and should be transported with the unplugged PDB.

1. Export the TDE master encryption key of the PDB that you want to unplug.
See "Exporting and Importing TDE Master Encryption Keys for a PDB".

2. Unplug the PDB, as described in Oracle Database Administrator's Guide.

Plugging a PDB That Has Encrypted Data into a CDB

To plug a PDB that has encrypted data into a CDB, you must import the TDE master encryption key into the PDB and then configure it there.

1. Create the PDB by plugging the unplugged PDB into the CDB, as described in Oracle Database Administrator's Guide.
During the open operation of the PDB after the plug operation, Oracle Database determines if the PDB has encrypted data. If so, it opens the PDB in the RESTRICTED mode.

See Oracle Database Administrator's Guide for more information about the Open Mode of a PDB.

2. Import the TDE master encryption key into the PDB.
See "Exporting and Importing TDE Master Encryption Keys for a PDB".

3. Close the PDB and then re-open the PDB, as described in Oracle Database Administrator's Guide.

4. Open the keystore.
See the following sections:

- "Step 3: Open the Software Keystore"

- "Step 3: Open the Hardware Keystore"

5. Set the TDE master encryption key for the PDB.
See the following sections:

- "Step 4: Set the Software TDE Master Encryption Key"

- "Step 4: Set the Hardware Keystore TDE Master Encryption Key"

- "Creating TDE Master Encryption Keys for Later Use"

How Open and Close Operations for a Keystore Work in a Multitenant Environment

You should be aware of how keystore open and close operations work in a multitenant environment.

For each PDB in a multitenant environment, you must explicitly open the password-based software keystore or hardware keystore in the PDB to enable the Transparent Data Encryption operations to proceed. (Auto-login and local auto-login software keystores open automatically.) Closing a keystore on a PDB blocks all of the Transparent Data Encryption operations on that PDB.

In a CDB, the open and close keystore operations in a PDB depends on the open and close status of the keystore in the root.

Note the following:

- Before you can manually open a software password-based or hardware keystore in an individual PDB, you must open the keystore in the root.

- Before you can set a TDE master encryption key in an individual PDB, you must set the key in the root.

- Auto-login and local auto-login software keystores open automatically. You do not need to manually open these from the root first, or from the PDB.

- If you close a keystore in the root, then the keystores in the dependent PDBs also close. A keystore close operation in the root is the equivalent of performing a keystore close operation with the CONTAINER clause set to ALL.

- If you open a keystore in the root and set the CONTAINER clause to ALL, then the keystores in the dependent PDBs also open.

Finding the Keystore Status for All of the PDBs in a Multitenant Environment

The V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET view displays the status of the keystore in a PDB, whether it is open, closed, uses a software or hardware keystore, and so on. You can create a convenience function that uses this view to find the status for keystores in all of the PDBs in a CDB.

- To create a function that uses theV$ENCRYPTION_WALLET view to find the keystore status, use the CREATE PROCEDURE PL/SQL statement.

Example 6-5 shows how to create this function.

Example 6-5 Function to Find the Keystore Status of All of the PDBs in a CDB

CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE all_pdb_v$encryption_wallet
IS
err_occ            BOOLEAN;
curr_pdb           VARCHAR2(30);
pdb_name           VARCHAR2(30);
wrl_type           VARCHAR2(20);
status             VARCHAR2(30);
wallet_type        VARCHAR2(20);
wallet_order       VARCHAR2(12);
fully_backed_up    VARCHAR2(15);
wrl_parameter      VARCHAR2(4000);
cursor sel_pdbs IS SELECT NAME FROM V$CONTAINERS
WHERE NAME <> 'PDB$SEED' order by con_id desc;
BEGIN

-- Store the original PDB name
SELECT sys_context('userenv', 'con_name') INTO curr_pdb FROM DUAL;
IF curr_pdb <> 'CDB$ROOT' THEN
dbms_output.put_line('Operation valid in ROOT only');
END IF;

err_occ := FALSE;
dbms_output.put_line('---');
dbms_output.put_line('PDB_NAME                       WRL_TYPE STATUS                        ');
dbms_output.put_line('------------------------------ -------- ------------------------------');
dbms_output.put_line('WALLET_TYPE          WALLET_ORDER FULLY_BACKED_UP');
dbms_output.put_line('-------------------- ------------ ---------------');
dbms_output.put_line('WRL_PARAMETER');
dbms_output.put_line('--------------------------------------------------------------------------');
FOR pdbinfo IN sel_pdbs LOOP

pdb_name := DBMS_ASSERT.ENQUOTE_NAME(pdbinfo.name, FALSE);
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'ALTER SESSION SET CONTAINER = ' || pdb_name;

BEGIN
pdb_name := rpad(substr(pdb_name,1,30), 30, ' ');
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'SELECT wrl_type from V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET' into wrl_type;
wrl_type := rpad(substr(wrl_type,1,8), 8, ' ');
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'SELECT status from V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET' into status;
status := rpad(substr(status,1,30), 30, ' ');
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'SELECT wallet_type from V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET' into wallet_type;
wallet_type := rpad(substr(wallet_type,1,20), 20, ' ');
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'SELECT wallet_order from V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET' into wallet_order;
wallet_order := rpad(substr(wallet_order,1,9), 12, ' ');
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'SELECT fully_backed_up from V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET' into fully_backed_up;
fully_backed_up := rpad(substr(fully_backed_up,1,9), 15, ' ');
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'SELECT wrl_parameter from V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET' into wrl_parameter;
wrl_parameter := rpad(substr(wrl_parameter,1,79), 79, ' ');
dbms_output.put_line(pdb_name || ' ' || wrl_type || ' ' || status);
dbms_output.put_line(wallet_type || ' ' || wallet_order || ' ' || fully_backed_up);
dbms_output.put_line(wrl_parameter);

EXCEPTION
WHEN OTHERS THEN
err_occ := TRUE;
END;
END LOOP;

IF err_occ = TRUE THEN
dbms_output.put_line('One or more PDB resulted in an error');
END IF;
END;
.
/
set serveroutput on
exec all_pdb_v$encryption_wallet;

How Transparent Data Encryption Works with Oracle Call Interface

Transparent Data Encryption does not have any effect on the operation of Oracle Call Interface (OCI).

For most practical purposes, TDE is transparent to OCI except for the row shipping feature. You cannot use the OCI row shipping feature with TDE because the key to make the row usable is not available at the receipt-point.

How Transparent Data Encryption Works with Editions

Transparent Data Encryption does not have any effect on the Editions feature of Oracle Database.

For most practical purposes, TDE is transparent to Editions. Tables are always noneditioned objects. TDE Column Encryption encrypts columns of the table. Editions are not affected by TDE tablespace encryption.

Configuring Transparent Data Encryption to Work in a Multidatabase Environment

If there are multiple Oracle databases installed on the same server (for example, databases sharing the same Oracle binary but using different data files), then each database must access its own Transparent Data Encryption keystore.

Keystores are not designed to be shared among databases. By design, there must be one keystore per database. You cannot use the same keystore for more than one database.

- To configure the sqlnet.ora file for a multidatabase environment, use one of the following options:

- Option 1: If the databases share the same Oracle home, then keep the sqlnet.ora file in the default location, which is in the ORACLE_HOME/network/admin directory.
In this case, it is ideal to use the default location. Ensure that the sqlnet.ora file has no WALLET_LOCATION or ENCRYPTION_WALLET_LOCATION entries. Transparent Data Encryption accesses the keystore from the default sqlnet.ora location if these two entries are not in the sqlnet.ora file.

- Option 2: If Option 1 is not feasible for your site, then you can specify the keystore location based on an environment variable setting, such as ORACLE_SID.
For example:

ENCRYPTION_WALLET_LOCATION =
(SOURCE =
(METHOD = FILE)
(METHOD_DATA =
(DIRECTORY = /home/oracle/wallet/$ORACLE_SID)

- Option 3: If Options 1 and 2 are not feasible, then use separate sqlnet.ora files, one for each database. Ensure that you correctly set the TNS_ADMIN environment variable to point to the correct database configuration. See SQL*Plus User's Guide and Reference for more information and examples of setting the TNS_ADMIN variable.

Caution:

Using a keystore from another database can cause partial or complete data loss.

7 Frequently Asked Questions About Transparent Data Encryption

Users frequently have questions about transparency and performance issues with Transparent Data Encryption.

Topics:

- Transparency Questions About Transparent Data Encryption

- Performance Questions About Transparent Data Encryption

Transparency Questions About Transparent Data Encryption

Transparent Data encryption handles transparency in data in a variety of ways.

Security auditors occasionally ask detailed questions about the encryption used by Oracle Advanced Security Transparent Data Encryption (TDE). They request information about TDE keys, algorithms, lengths, and keystores and then directly compare to requirements of regulations such as PCI-DSS. This topic contains important details about TDE encryption and key management. This information is current as of Oracle Database 12c (12.1.0.2). It is intended to help TDE customers respond to auditor questions quickly and accurately.

1. Is Transparent Data Encryption compatible with my application software?
Transparent Data Encryption is compatible with applications by default because it does not alter the inbound SQL statements or the outbound SQL query results. Oracle executes internal testing and validation of certain Oracle and third-party application software to capture helpful deployment tips or scripts, and to evaluate performance profiles. See the following Oracle Technology Network page to find more information about deployment scripts that you can use for various applications.

http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/database/options/advanced-security/index-099011.html

Be aware of the difference between Transparent Data Encryption and the DBMS_CRYPTO PL/SQL package. This package is intended for different customer use cases. It is an API and toolkit solution and as such, it is non-transparent.

2. Is Transparent Data Encryption compatible with other Oracle Database tools and technologies that I am using?
One of the chief benefits of Transparent Data Encryption is its integration with frequently used Oracle Database tools and technologies such as high-availability clusters, storage compression, backup compression, data movement, database backup and restore, and database replication. Specific Oracle technologies that are integrated directly with Transparent Data Encryption include Oracle Real Application Clusters (Oracle RAC), Oracle Recovery Manager (RMAN), Oracle Data Guard, Advanced Compression, Oracle Data Pump, and Oracle GoldenGate, among others. Transparent Data Encryption also has special points of integration with Oracle Exadata that fully use unique features of Oracle-engineered systems.

Transparent Data Encryption also works easily with security features of the Oracle Database. With Transparent Data Encryption, privilege grants, roles, Oracle Database Vault realms, Virtual Private Database policies, and Oracle Label Security labels remain in effect. You can use these and other security features in tandem with Transparent Data Encryption encryption.

3. Are there any known Transparent Data Encryption limitations or incompatibilities?

- TDE column encryption: TDE column encryption encrypts and decrypts data transparently when data passes through the SQL layer. Some features of Oracle will bypass the SQL layer, and hence cannot benefit from TDE column encryption. The following are known database features that TDE column encryption does not support, and their relevant software version numbers:

- Materialized View Logs (not supported prior to Oracle Database 11g Release 2)

- Streams (not supported prior to Oracle Database 11g Release 1)

- Synchronous and asynchronous change data capture for data warehousing (CDC)

- Transportable Tablespaces

- LOBs

Note that Secure Files were introduced in Oracle Database 11g Release 1, so it is not supported with TDE column encryption prior to that release

- TDE tablespace encryption: TDE tablespace encryption encrypts all content that is stored in the tablespace at the block level in storage, and it generally does not conflict with other database features. TDE tablespace encryption does not have any of the limitations that TDE column encryption has. However, you should be aware of the following:

- For transportable tablespaces (TTS) that use TDE tablespace encryption, the origin database can be encrypted with TDE, but it requires that the destination database is not encrypted with TDE. This is because you would have to overwrite the Oracle wallet on the destination database with the origin database's Oracle wallet, thus losing access to existing encrypted data on the destination. Also, the origin and destination databases both must share the same endianness.

- Do not attempt to encrypt database internal objects such as the SYSTEM, SYSAUX, UNDO, or TEMP tablespaces using TDE tablespace encryption. You should focus TDE tablespace encryption on tablespaces that hold application data, not on these core components of the Oracle database.

4. What types of keys and algorithms does TDE use?
TDE relies on two distinct sets of encryption keys. The first set of encryption keys are data encryption keys (DEK), which are used to transparently encrypt and decrypt stored data. DEKs are generated automatically by the database, stored internally in the database in encrypted form, and managed mostly behind the scenes. One place where end-users interact with DEKs is when selecting the encryption algorithm and key length that TDE will use, which can be 3DES168, AES128, AES192, or AES256. This selection is made independently for each table containing encrypted columns and for each encrypted tablespace. You may also hear DEKs referred to as table keys (column encryption) or tablespace keys (tablespace encryption). The table keys are used in cipher block chaining (CBC) operating mode, and the tablespace keys are used in cipher feedback (CFB) operating mode.

The second set of encryption keys consists of current and historical key encryption keys (KEK), also known as TDE master keys. The TDE master keys are generated automatically by the database, used automatically to encrypt and decrypt DEKs as needed, and stored externally in a protected keystore. Users may interact with the current TDE master key by periodically rotating it, modifying certain key attributes, and so forth. Typically, the keystore for TDE master keys is either an Oracle wallet (out-of-the-box solution) or Oracle Key Vault (a specialized key management product). Although the database uses only one TDE master key at a time, all rotated TDE master keys are retained in the keystore for long-term recovery of encrypted data backups. TDE master keys always are AES256. They encrypt and decrypt DEKs using CBC operating mode. For both DEKs and TDE master keys, the underlying key material is not directly exposed. End-users see only attributes of keys necessary to manage TDE.

5. How are Oracle wallets containing TDE master keys protected?
There are three different types of wallets to consider when you use an Oracle wallet as the keystore for TDE master keys: password-based wallet, auto-login wallet, and local auto-login wallet. All of these wallets externalize TDE master keys, so they are separate from TDE-encrypted data. Oracle recommends that you place wallet files in local or network directories that are protected by tight file permissions and other security measures.

The password-based wallet is an encrypted key storage file (ewallet.p12) that follows the PKCS #12 standard. It is encrypted by a password-derived key according to the PKCS #5 standard. A human user must enter a command containing the password for the database to open the wallet, decrypt its contents, and gain access to keys. The password-based wallet is the default keystore for TDE master keys. In the past, it was encrypted using the 3DES168 encryption algorithm and CBC operating mode. Starting in Oracle Database 12c (12.1.0.2), a new orapki command, convert wallet, enables you to convert password-based wallets to AES256 and CBC operating mode. (See Oracle Database Security Guide for more information about using orapki to convert wallets).

Auto-login wallets (cwallet.sso) optionally are derived from standard password-based wallets for special cases where automatic startup of the database is required with no human interaction to enter a wallet password. When using auto-login wallet, the master password-based wallet must be preserved because it is needed to rotate the TDE master key. In addition to the best practice of storing auto-login wallet in a local or network directory that is protected by tight file permissions, the file contents are scrambled by the database using a proprietary method for added security. A slight variation on the auto-login wallet called local auto-login wallet has similar behavior. One notable difference with local auto-login wallet is that its contents are scrambled using additional factors taken from the host machine where the file was created. This renders the local auto-login wallet unusable on other host machines. Details of the host factors and scrambling technique are proprietary.

6. What is Oracle Key Vault and how does it manage TDE master keys?
Oracle Key Vault centrally manages TDE master keys, Oracle wallets, Java keystores, and more. It helps you to take control of proliferating keys and key storage files. It includes optimizations specifically for TDE and other components of the Oracle stack. For more information about using Oracle Key Vault with TDE, see the product pages on Oracle.com and Oracle Technology Network and Oracle Key Vault Administrator’s Guide.

Performance Questions About Transparent Data Encryption

There are several performance issues to consider when using Transparent Data Encryption.

1. What is the typical performance overhead from Transparent Data Encryption?
There are many different variables involved in the creation of an accurate Transparent Data Encryption performance test. The results can vary depending on the test environment, test case or workload, measurement metrics or methods, and so on. Oracle cannot guarantee a specific performance overhead percentage that can apply in all possible scenarios. In practice, the performance tests by many Transparent Data Encryption customers are often in the low single digits as a percentage, but that is not universally the case. Customer examples that cite 1 percent and 2 percent overhead respectively are published on Oracle Technology Network in the following URL:

http://streaming.oracle.com/ebn/podcasts/media/12740910_ColumbiaU_120312.mp3

If possible, use Oracle Real Application Testing (Oracle RAT) to capture a real production workload and then replay it against Transparent Data Encryption to get a true indication of the performance overhead that the you can expect within your environment.

See also:

- "Performance and Storage Overhead of Transparent Data Encryption"

- Oracle Database Real Application Testing User's Guide for more information about the Oracle Real Application Testing option

2. How can I tune for optimal Transparent Data Encryption performance?

- TDE column encryption:

- Limit the crypto processing by only encrypting the subset of columns that are strictly required to be protected. In addition, turn off the optional integrity checking feature.

- After you apply column encryption, rebuild the column indexes.

- TDE tablespace encryption: TDE tablespace encryption improves performance by caching unencrypted data in memory in the SGA buffer cache. This feature reduces the number of crypto operations that must be performed when users run SELECT queries, which draw from the SGA instead of drawing from disk. (Drawing from disk forces the database to perform decrypt operations.) Ensure that the size of the SGA buffer cache is large enough to take full advantage of this performance optimization.
Another major performance boost comes from using hardware and software that supports CPU-based cryptographic acceleration available in Intel AES-NI and Oracle SPARC T4/T5. To take advantage of this feature, you must be running a recent version of the database, have a recent version of the operating system installed, and be using hardware that includes crypto acceleration circuitry within its CPUs/cores.

Database compression further speeds up Transparent Data Encryption performance because the crypto processing occurs on data that already is compressed, resulting in less total data to encrypt and decrypt.

- In general:

- Ensure that you have applied the latest patches, which you can download from My Oracle Support at
https://support.oracle.com

- When you specify an encryption algorithm, remember that AES is slightly faster than 3DES. Use AES128 where possible. Be aware that the performance benefit is small.

- Use Exadata, which includes additional performance benefits. For more information about Oracle Exadata, see Oracle Database Real Application Testing User's Guide.

3. Are there specific issues that may slow down TDE performance, and if so, how do I avoid them?
TDE tablespace performance is slower if the database cannot use CPU-based hardware acceleration on the host machine due to factors such as older hardware, an older database version, or an older operating system.

Note the following with regard to specific database workloads:

- Encrypting the whole data set at once (for example, while doing “Bulk Data Load" into an Oracle data warehouse): Lower crypto performance has been observed during bulk load of new data into the database or data warehouse. New data cannot be cached in SGA, so TDE tablespace encryption performance optimizations are bypassed. Hence, Transparent Data Encryption has no bonus performance benefits in this type of operation.
Follow these guidelines:

- Ensure that the database is running on servers with CPU-based cryptographic acceleration. This accelerates not only decrypt operations, but also encrypt operations as well (for loading new data). Take the crypto processing out of band by pre-encrypting the data set and then using Transportable Tablespaces (TTS) to load into the database. Try to parallelize this procedure where possible. This requires the database instance to copy the required TDE key to the keystore on the destination database. The procedure may not be feasible when there is a fixed time window for encryption and loading, and these must be done serially.

- Consider using TDE column encryption. Encrypt only the handful of sensitive regulated columns instead of encrypting an entire tablespace.

- Decrypting an entire data set at once (for example, while performing a full table scan by reading directly from disk, with no reading from SGA):
Lower crypto performance is observed when running full table scan queries where data is read directly from storage. Certain performance optimizations of TDE tablespace encryption are bypassed (no caching). Hence, Transparent Data Encryption has no bonus performance benefits in this type of operation.

Follow these guidelines:

- Ensure that the database is running on servers with CPU-based cryptographic acceleration.

- Retest the full table scan queries with a larger SGA size to measure performance when data is read from cache. Try setting the Oracle event number 10949 to disable direct path read.

- Partition the database so that less data is scanned by full table scan operations. Production databases often use partitioning for this kind of scenario (that is, to limit the total amount of data scanned).

- Consider using TDE column encryption. Encrypt only the handful of sensitive regulated columns instead of encrypting an entire tablespace.

Part II Using Oracle Data Redaction

Part II describes how to use Oracle Data Redaction.

Topics:

- Introduction to Oracle Data Redaction

- Configuring Oracle Data Redaction Policies

- Oracle Data Redaction Use with Oracle Database Features

- Security Considerations for Using Oracle Data Redaction

8 Introduction to Oracle Data Redaction

Oracle Data Redaction is the ability to redact sensitive data in real time.

Topics:

- What Is Oracle Data Redaction?

- When to Use Oracle Data Redaction

- Benefits of Using Oracle Data Redaction

- Target Use Cases for Oracle Data Redaction

See Also:

- Oracle Database 2 Day + Security Guide for a tutorial about creating Oracle Data Redaction policies

- Oracle Database Security Guide for information about using Transparent Sensitive Data Protection policies with Oracle Data Redaction

What Is Oracle Data Redaction?

Oracle Data Redaction enables you to mask (redact) data that is returned from queries issued by applications.

You can redact column data by using one of the following methods:

- Full redaction. You redact all of the contents of the column data. The redacted value returned to the querying application user depends on the data type of the column. For example, columns of the NUMBER data type are redacted with a zero (0), and character data types are redacted with a single space.

- Partial redaction. You redact a portion of the column data. For example, you can redact a Social Security number with asterisks (*), except for the last 4 digits.

- Regular expressions. You can use regular expressions to look for patterns of data to redact. For example, you can use regular expressions to redact email addresses, which can have varying character lengths. It is designed for use with character data only.

- Random redaction. The redacted data presented to the querying application user appears as randomly generated values each time it is displayed, depending on the data type of the column.

- No redaction. The None redaction type option enables you to test the internal operation of your redaction policies, with no effect on the results of queries against tables with policies defined on them. You can use this option to test the redaction policy definitions before applying them to a production environment.

Oracle Database applies the redaction at runtime, when users access the data (that is, at query-execution time). This solution works well in a production system. During the time that the data is being redacted, all of the data processing is performed normally, and the back-end referential integrity constraints are preserved.

Data redaction can help you to comply with industry regulations such as Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) and the Sarbanes-Oxley Act.

When to Use Oracle Data Redaction

Use Oracle Data Redaction when you must disguise sensitive data that your applications and application users must access. Data Redaction enables you to easily disguise the data using several different redaction styles.

Oracle Data Redaction is ideal for situations in which you must redact specific characters out of the result set of queries of Personally Identifiable Information (PII) returned to certain application users. For example, you may want to present a U.S. Social Security number that ends with the numbers 4320 as ***-**-4320.

Oracle Data Redaction is particularly suited for call center applications and other applications that are read-only. Take care when using Oracle Data Redaction with applications that perform updates back to the database, because redacted data can be written back to this database.

Benefits of Using Oracle Data Redaction

Oracle Data Redaction provides several benefits when you use it to protect your data.

These benefits are as follows:

- You have different styles of redaction from which to choose.

- Because the data is redacted at runtime, Data Redaction is well suited to environments in which data is constantly changing.

- You can create the Data Redaction policies in one central location and easily manage them from there.

- The Data Redaction policies enable you to create a wide variety of function conditions based on SYS_CONTEXT values, which can be used at runtime to decide when the Data Redaction policies will apply to the results of the application user's query.

Target Use Cases for Oracle Data Redaction

Oracle Data Redaction fulfils common use case scenarios.

Topics:

- Oracle Data Redaction Use with Database Applications

- Considerations When Using Oracle Data Redaction with Ad Hoc Database Queries

Oracle Data Redaction Use with Database Applications

Oracle Data Redaction protects sensitive data that is displayed in database applications.

Data Redaction is transparent to application users because it preserves the original data type and (optionally) the formatting. It is highly transparent to the database because the data remains the same in buffers, caches, and storage—only being changed at the last minute just before SQL query results are returned to the caller. The redaction is enforced consistently across all of the applications that use the same underlying database. You can specify which application users should see only redacted data by checking application user information that is passed into the database through the SYS_CONTEXT function; you can redact data based on attributes of the current database or application user; and you can implement multiple logical conditions within a given redaction policy. In addition, Data Redaction is implemented in a way that minimizes performance overhead. These characteristics make Oracle Data Redaction particularly well suited for usage by a range of applications, analytics tools, reporting tools, and monitoring tools that share common production databases. Although its primary target is redaction of production data for applications, Oracle Data Redaction also can be used in combination with Oracle Enterprise Manager Data Masking and Subsetting Pack for protecting sensitive data in testing and development environments.

See Also:

- Oracle Database Real Application Testing User's Guide for more information about data masking

- "Oracle Data Redaction and Data Masking and Subsetting Pack"

Considerations When Using Oracle Data Redaction with Ad Hoc Database Queries

You may encounter situations where it is convenient to redact sensitive data for ad hoc queries that are performed by database users.

For example, in the course of supporting a production application, a user may need to run ad hoc database queries to troubleshoot and fix an urgent problem with the application. This is different from the application-based scenarios described in "Oracle Data Redaction Use with Database Applications", which typically generate a bounded set of SQL queries, use defined database accounts, and have fixed privileges.

Even though Oracle Data Redaction is not designed to prevent data exposure to database users who run ad hoc queries directly against the database, it can provide an additional layer to reduce the chances of accidental data exposure. Because such users may have rights to change data, alter the database schema, and circumvent the SQL query interface entirely, it is possible for a malicious user to bypass Data Redaction policies in certain circumstances.

Remember that the Oracle Database security tools are designed to be used together to improve overall security. By deploying one or more of these tools as a complement to Oracle Data Redaction, you can securely increase your overall security posture.

See Also:

"General Usage Guidelines" for additional general usage guidelines

9 Oracle Data Redaction Features and Capabilities

Oracle Data Redaction provides a variety of ways to redact different types of data.

Topics:

- Full Data Redaction to Redact All Data

- Partial Data Redaction to Redact Sections of Data

- Regular Expressions to Redact Patterns of Data

- Random Data Redaction to Generate Random Values

- Comparison of Full, Partial, and Random Redaction Based on Data Types

- No Redaction for Testing Purposes

Full Data Redaction to Redact All Data

When an Oracle Data Redaction policy that specifies full data redaction is applied to a table or view, the entire contents of the column are redacted.

By default the output is displayed as follows:

- Character data types: The output text is a single space.

- Number data types: The output text is a zero (0).

- Date-time data types: The output text is set to the first day of January, 2001, which appears as 01-JAN-01.

Full redaction is the default and is used whenever a Data Redaction policy specifies the column but omits the function_type parameter setting. When you run the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY procedure, to set the function_type parameter setting for full redaction, you enter the following setting:

function_type    => DBMS_REDACT.FULL

You can use the DBMS_REDACT.UPDATE_FULL_REDACTION_VALUES procedure to change the full redaction output to different values.

See Also:

- "Syntax for Creating a Full Redaction Policy"

- "Altering the Default Full Data Redaction Value"

Partial Data Redaction to Redact Sections of Data

In partial data redaction, you redact portions of the displayed output.

You can set the position within the actual data at which to begin the redaction, the number of characters to redact starting from that position, and the redaction character to use. This type of redaction is useful for situations where you want it to be obvious to the person viewing the data that it was redacted in some way. Typically, you use this type of redaction for credit cards or ID numbers.

Be aware that partial data redaction requires that your data width remain fixed. If you want to redact columns containing string values of variable length, then you must use regular expressions, as described in "Regular Expressions to Redact Patterns of Data".

To specify partial redaction, you must set the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY procedure function_type parameter to DBMS_REDACT.PARTIAL and use the function_parameters parameter to define the partial redaction behavior.

The displayed output for partial data redaction can be as follows:

- Character data types: When partially redacted, a Social Security number (represented as a hyphenated string within a character data type) with value 987-65-4320 could be redacted so that it is displayed as shown in the following examples. The code on the right specifies how to redact the character data: it specifies the expected input format of the actual data, the format to use for the display of the redacted output, the start position at which to begin the redaction, the character to use for the redaction, and how many characters to redact. The first example uses a predefined format (in previous releases called a shortcut) for character data type Social Security numbers, and the second example replaces the first five numbers with an asterisk (*) while preserving the hyphens (-) in between the numbers.

XXX-XX-4320    function_parameters => DBMS_REDACT.REDACT_US_SSN_F5,

***-**-4320    function_parameters => 'VVVFVVFVVVV,VVV-VV-VVVV,*,1,5',

- Number data types: The partially redacted NUMBER data type Social Security number 987654328 could appear as follows. Both redact the first five digits. The first example uses a predefined format that is designed for Social Security numbers in the NUMBER data type, and the second replaces the first five numbers with the number 9, starting from the first digit.

XXXXX4328    function_parameters => DBMS_REDACT.REDACT_NUM_US_SSN_F5,

999994328    function_parameters => '9,1,5',

- Date-time data types: Partially redacted datetime values can appear simply as different dates. For example, the date 29-AUG-11 10.20.50.000000 AM could appear as follows. In the first example, the day of the month is redacted to 02 (using the setting d02) and in the second example, the month is redacted to DEC (using m12). The uppercase values show the actual month (M), year (Y), hour (H), minute (M), and second (S).

02-AUG-11 10.20.50.000000 AM   function_parameters  =>  'Md02YHMS',

29-DEC-11 10.20.50.000000 AM   function_parameters  =>  'm12DYHMS',

See Also:

- "Syntax for Creating a Regular Expression-Based Redaction Policy"

- "Syntax for Creating a Partial Redaction Policy"

Regular Expressions to Redact Patterns of Data

You can use regular expressions to redact specific data within a column data value, based on a pattern search.

For example, you can redact the user name of email addresses, so that only the domain shows (for example, replacing hpreston in the email address hpreston@example.com with [redacted] so that it appears as [redacted]@example.com). To perform the redaction, set the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY procedure function_type parameter to DBMS_REDACT.REGEXP, and then use the following parameters to build the regular expression:

- A string search pattern (that is, the values to search for), such as:

regexp_pattern         => '(.+)@(.+\.[A-Za-z]{2,4})'

This setting looks for a pattern of the following form:

one_or_more_characters@one_or_more_characters.2-4_characters_in_range_A-Z_or_a-z

- A replacement string, which replaces the value matched by the regexp_pattern setting. The replacement string can include back references to sub-expressions of the main regular expression pattern. The following example replaces the data before the @ symbol (from the regexp_pattern setting) with the text [redacted]. The \2 setting refers to the second match group, which is (.+\.[A-Za-z]{2,4}) from the regexp_pattern setting.

regexp_replace_string  => '[redacted]@\2'

- The starting position for the string search string, such as the first character of the data, such as:

regexp_position        => DBMS_REDACT.RE_BEGINNING

- The kind of search and replace operation to perform, such as the first occurrence, every fifth occurrence, or all of the occurrences, such as:

regexp_occurrence      => DBMS_REDACT.RE_ALL

- The default matching behavior for the search and replace operation, such as whether the search is case-sensitive (i sets it to be not case-sensitive):

regexp_match_parameter => 'i

In addition to the default parameters, you can use a set of predefined formats that enable you to use commonly used regular expressions for telephone numbers, email addresses, and credit card numbers.

See Also:

"Syntax for Creating a Regular Expression-Based Redaction Policy"

Random Data Redaction to Generate Random Values

In random data redaction, the entire value is redacted by replacing it with a random value. The redacted values displayed in the result set of the query change randomly each time application users run the query.

This type of redaction is useful in cases where you do not want it to be obvious that the data was redacted. It works especially well for number and datetime data types, where it is difficult to distinguish between random and real data.

The displayed output for random values changes based on the data type of the redacted column, as follows:

- Character data types: The random output is a mixture of characters (for example, HTU[G{\pjkEWcK). It behaves differently for the CHAR and VARCHAR2 data types, as follows:

- CHAR data type: The redacted output is always in the same character set as the character set of the column. The byte length of the redacted output is always the same as the column definition length (that is, the column length that was provided at the time of table creation). For example, if the column is CHAR(20), then a string of 20 random characters is provided in the redacted output of the user's query.

- VARCHAR2 data type: For random redaction of a VARCHAR data type, the redacted output is always in the same character set as the character set of the column. The length of the redacted output is limited based on the length of the actual data in the column. No characters in excess of the length of the actual data are displayed. For example, if the column is VARCHAR2(20) and the row being redacted contains actual data with a length of 12, then a string of 12 random characters (not 20) is provided in the redacted output of the user's query for that row.

- Number data types: Each actual number value is redacted by replacing it with a random, non-negative number modulo the absolute value of the actual data. This redaction results in random numbers that do not exceed the precision of the actual data. For example, the number 987654321 can be redacted by replacing it with any of the numbers 12345678, 13579, 0, or 987654320, but not by replacing it with any of the numbers 987654321, 99987654321, or -1. The number -123 could be redacted by replacing it with the numbers 122, 0, or 83, but not by replacing it with any of the numbers 123, 1123, or -2.
The only exception to the above is when the actual value is an integer between -1 and 9. In this case, the actual data is redacted by replacing it with a random, non-negative integer modulo ten (10).

- Date-time data types: When values of the date data type are redacted using random Data Redaction, Oracle Database displays them with random dates that are always different from those of the actual data.

The setting for using random redaction is as follows:

function_type    => DBMS_REDACT.RANDOM

See Also:

"Syntax for Creating a Random Redaction Policy"

Comparison of Full, Partial, and Random Redaction Based on Data Types

The full, partial, and random data redaction styles affect the Oracle built-in, ANSI, user-defined, and Oracle supplied types in different ways.

Topics:

- Redaction Capabilities for Oracle Built-in Data Types

- Redaction Capabilities for the ANSI Data Types

- Redaction Capabilities for the User Defined Data Types or Oracle Supplied Types

Redaction Capabilities for Oracle Built-in Data Types

Oracle Data Redaction handles the Oracle built-in data types depending on the type of Data Redaction policies are used.

Table 9-1 compares how the full, partial, and random redaction styles work for Oracle built-in data types.

Table 9-1 Redaction Capabilities for Oracle Built-in Data Types

Data Type

Full Redaction

Partial Redaction

Random Redaction

Character: CHAR, VARCHAR2 (including long VARCHAR2, for example, VARCHAR2(20000)), NCHAR, NVARCHAR2

Default redacted value is a single blank space

Supported data type

Supported data type

Number: NUMBER, FLOAT, BINARY_FLOAT, BINARY_DOUBLE

Default redacted value is zero (0).

Supported data type

Supported data type

Raw: LONG RAW, RAW

Not a supported data type

Not a supported data type

Not a supported data type

Date-time: DATE, TIMESTAMP, TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE, TIMESTAMP WITH LOCAL TIME ZONE

Default redacted value is 01-01-01 or 01-01-01 01:00:00.

Supported data type

Supported data type

Interval: INTERVAL YEAR TO MONTH, INTERVAL DAY TO SECOND

Not a supported data type

Not a supported data type

Not a supported data type

Large Object: BFILE

Not a supported data type

Not a supported data type

Not a supported data type

Large Object: BLOB

Oracle's raw representation of [redacted]

[1]

Not a supported data type

Not a supported data type

Large Object: CLOB, NCLOB

Default redacted value is [redacted].

Not a supported data type

Not a supported data type

Rowid: ROWID, UROWID

Not a supported data type

Not a supported data type

Not a supported data type

Redaction Capabilities for the ANSI Data Types

Oracle Data Redaction converts ANSI data types in specific ways, depending on the type of redaction the Data Redaction policy has.

Table 9-2 compares how the full, partial, and random redaction styles work for ANSI data types.

Table 9-2 Redaction Capabilities for the ANSI Data Types

Data Type

How Converted

Full Redaction

Partial Redaction

Random Redaction

CHARACTER(n),

CHAR(n)

Converted to CHAR(n)

Default redacted value is a single blank space.

Supported data type

Supported data type

CHARACTER VARYING(n),

CHAR VARYING(n)

Converted to VARCHAR2(n)

Default redacted value is a single blank space.

Supported data type

Supported data type

NATIONAL CHARACTER(n),

NATIONAL CHAR(n),

NCHAR(n)

Converted to NCHAR(n)

Default redacted value is a single blank space.

Supported data type

Supported data type

NATIONAL CHARACTER VARYING(n),

NATIONAL CHAR VARYING(n),

NCHAR VARYING(n)

Converted to NVARCHAR2(n)

Default redacted value is a single blank space.

Supported data type

Supported data type

NUMERIC[(p,s)]

DECIMAL[(p,s)]

Converted to NUMBER(p,s)

Default redacted value is zero (0).

Supported data type

Supported data type

INTEGER

INT

SMALLINT

Converted to NUMBER(38)

Default redacted value is zero (0).

Supported data type

Supported data type

FLOAT

DOUBLE PRECISION

Converted to FLOAT(126)

Default redacted value is zero (0).

Supported data type

Supported data type

REAL

Converted to FLOAT(63)

Default redacted value is zero (0).

Supported data type

Supported data type

GRAPHIC

LONG VARGRAPHIC

VARGRAPHIC

TIME

No conversion

Not a supported data type

Not a supported data type

Not a supported data type

Redaction Capabilities for the User Defined Data Types or Oracle Supplied Types

Several data types or types are not supported by Oracle Data Redaction.

Table 9-3 compares how the full, partial, and random redaction styles work for user defined and Oracle supplied types.

Table 9-3 Redaction Capabilities for the User Defined Data Types or Oracle Supplied Types

Data Type or Type

Full Redaction

Partial Redaction

Random Redaction

User-defined data types

Not a supported data type

Not a supported data type

Not a supported data type

Oracle supplied types: Any types, XML types, Oracle Spatial types, Oracle Media types

Not a supported data type

Not a supported data type

Not a supported data type

No Redaction for Testing Purposes

You can create a Data Redaction policy that does not perform redaction.

This is useful for cases in which you have a redacted base table, yet you want a specific application user to have a view that always shows the actual data. You can create a new view of the redacted table and then define a Data Redaction policy for this view. The policy still exists on the base table, but no redaction is performed when the application queries using the view as long as the DBMS_REDACT.NONE function_type setting was used to create a policy on the view.

[1]
If you have changed the character set, then you may need to invoke the DBMS_REDACT.UPDATE_FULL_REDACTION_VALUES procedure to set the value to the raw representation in the new character set, as follows:

DECLARE
new_red_blob BLOB;
BEGIN
DBMS_LOB.CREATETEMPORARY(new_red_blob, TRUE);
DBMS_LOB.WRITE(new_red_blob, 10, 1, UTL_RAW.CAST_TO_RAW('[redacted]'));
dbms_redact.update_full_redaction_values(
blob_val      => new_red_blob);
DBMS_LOB.FREETEMPORARY(new_red_blob);
END;
/

After you run this procedure, restart the database.

See also Altering the Default Full Data Redaction Value for more information about using the DBMS_REDACT.UPDATE_FULL_REDACTION_VALUES procedure.

10 Configuring Oracle Data Redaction Policies

An Oracle Data Redaction policy defines how to redact data in a column based on the table column type and the type of redaction you want to use. You can enable and disable policies as necessary.

Topics:

- About Oracle Data Redaction Policies

- Who Can Create Oracle Data Redaction Policies?

- Planning an Oracle Data Redaction Policy

- General Syntax of the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY Procedure

- Using Expressions to Define Conditions for Data Redaction Policies

- Creating a Full Redaction Policy and Altering the Full Redaction Value

- Creating a Partial Redaction Policy

- Creating a Regular Expression-Based Redaction Policy

- Creating a Random Redaction Policy

- Creating a Policy That Uses No Redaction

- Exemption of Users from Oracle Data Redaction Policies

- Redacting Multiple Columns

- Altering the Default Full Data Redaction Value

- Disabling and Enabling an Oracle Data Redaction Policy

- Dropping an Oracle Data Redaction Policy

- Tutorial: How Oracle Data Redaction Affects Tables and Views

- Tutorial: SQL Expressions to Build Reports with Redacted Values

- Oracle Data Redaction Policy Data Dictionary Views

About Oracle Data Redaction Policies

An Oracle Data Redaction policy defines the conditions in which redaction must occur for a table or view.

A Data Redaction policy has the following characteristics:

- The Data Redaction policy defines the following: What kind of redaction to perform, how the redaction should occur, and when the redaction takes place. Oracle Database performs the redaction at execution time, just before the data is returned to the application.

- A Data Redaction policy can fully redact values, partially redact values, or randomly redact values. In addition, you can define a Data Redaction policy to not redact any data at all, for when you want to test your policies in a test environment.

- A Data Redaction policy can be defined with a policy expression which allows for different application users to be presented with either redacted data or actual data, based on whether the policy expression returns TRUE or FALSE. Redaction takes place when the boolean result of evaluating the policy expression is TRUE. For security reasons, the functions and operators that can be used in the policy expression are limited to SYS_CONTEXT and a few others. User-created functions are not allowed. Policy expressions can make use of the SYS_SESSION_ROLES namespace with the SYS_CONTEXT function to check for enabled roles.

Table 10-1 lists the procedures in the DBMS_REDACT package.

Table 10-1 DBMS_REDACT Procedures

Procedure

Description

DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY

Adds a Data Redaction policy to a table or view

DBMS_REDACT.ALTER_POLICY

Modifies a Data Redaction policy

DBMS_REDACT.UPDATE_FULL_REDACTION_VALUES

Globally updates the full redaction value for a given data type. You must restart the database instance before the updated values can be used.

DBMS_REDACT.ENABLE_POLICY

Enables a Data Redaction policy

DBMS_REDACT.DISABLE_POLICY

Disables a Data Redaction policy

DBMS_REDACT.DROP_POLICY

Drops a Data Redaction policy

See Also:

- Oracle Database PL/SQL Packages and Types Reference for detailed information about the DBMS_REDACT PL/SQL package

- Using Oracle Data Redaction in Oracle Enterprise Managerfor information about using Oracle Enterprise Manager Cloud Control to create and manage Oracle Data Redaction policies and formats

Who Can Create Oracle Data Redaction Policies?

Because data redaction involves the protection of highly sensitive data, you should ensure that only trusted users can create Oracle Data Redaction policies.

To create redaction policies, you must have the EXECUTE privilege on the DBMS_REDACT PL/SQL package. To find the privileges that a user has been granted, you can query the DBA_SYS_PRIVS data dictionary view.

You do not need any privileges to access the underlying tables or views that will be protected by the policy.

Planning an Oracle Data Redaction Policy

Before you create an Oracle Data Redaction policy, it is important to plan the data redaction process that best suits your data.

1. Ensure that you have been granted the EXECUTE privilege on the DBMS_REDACT PL/SQL package.

2. Determine the data type of the table or view column that you want to redact.

3. Ensure that this column is not used in an Oracle Virtual Private Database (VPD) row filtering condition. That is, it must not be part of the VPD predicate generated by the VPD policy function.

4. Decide on the type of redaction that you want to perform: full, random, partial, regular expressions, or none.

5. Decide which users to apply the Data Redaction policy to.

6. Based on this information, create the Data Redaction policy by using the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY procedure.

7. Configure the policy to have additional columns to be redacted, as described in "Redacting Multiple Columns".

After you create the Data Redaction policy, it is automatically enabled and ready to redact data.

General Syntax of the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY Procedure

To create a Data Redaction policy, you must use the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY procedure.

The complete syntax for the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY procedure is as follows:

DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY (
object_schema               IN VARCHAR2 := NULL,
object_name                 IN VARCHAR2 := NULL,
policy_name                 IN VARCHAR2,
policy_description          IN VARCHAR2 := NULL,
column_name                 IN VARCHAR2 := NULL,
column_description          IN VARCHAR2 := NULL,
function_type               IN BINARY_INTEGER := DBMS_REDACT.FULL,
function_parameters         IN VARCHAR2 := NULL,
expression                  IN VARCHAR2,
enable                      IN BOOLEAN := TRUE,
regexp_pattern              IN VARCHAR2 := NULL,
regexp_replace_string       IN VARCHAR2 := NULL,
regexp_position             IN BINARY_INTEGER :=1,
regexp_occurrence           IN BINARY_INTEGER :=0,
regexp_match_parameter      IN VARCHAR2 := NULL);

In this specification:

- object_schema: Specifies the schema of the object on which the Data Redaction policy will be applied. If you omit this setting (or enter NULL), then Oracle Database uses the current user's name. Be aware that the meaning of "current user" here can change, depending on where you invoke the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY procedure.
For example, suppose user mpike grants user fbrown the EXECUTE privilege on a definer's rights PL/SQL package called mpike.protect_data in mpike's schema. From within this package, mpike has coded a procedure called protect_cust_data, which invokes the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY procedure. User mpike has set the object_schema parameter to NULL.

When fbrown invokes the protect_cust_data procedure in the mpike.protect_data package, Oracle Database attempts to define the Data Redaction policy around the object cust_data in the mpike schema, not the cust_data object in the schema that belongs to fbrown.

- object_name: Specifies the name of the table or view to which the Data Redaction policy applies.

- policy_name: Specifies the name of the policy to be created. Ensure that this name is unique in the database instance. You can find a list of existing Data Redaction policies by querying the POLICY_NAME column of the REDACTION_POLICIES data dictionary view.

- policy_description: Specifies a brief description of the purpose of the policy.

- column_name: Specifies the column whose data you want to redact. Note the following:

- You can apply the Data Redaction policy to multiple columns. If you want to apply the Data Redaction policy to multiple columns, then after you use DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY to create the policy, run the DBMS_REDACT.ALTER_POLICY procedure as many times as necessary to add each of the remaining required columns to the policy. See "Altering an Oracle Data Redaction Policy".

- Only one policy can be defined on a table or view. You can, however, create a new view on the table, and by defining a second redaction policy on this new view, you can choose to redact the columns in a different way when a query is issued against this new view. When deciding how to redact a given column, Oracle Database uses the policy of the earliest view in a view chain. See "Tutorial: How Oracle Data Redaction Affects Tables and Views" for more information about using Data Redaction policies with views.

- If you do not specify a column (for example, by entering NULL), then no columns are redacted by the policy. This enables you to create your policies so that they are in place, and then later on, you can add the column specification when you are ready.

- Do not use a column that is currently used in an Oracle Virtual Private Database (VPD) row filtering condition. In other words, the column should not be part of the VPD predicate generated by the VPD policy function. (See "Oracle Data Redaction and Oracle Virtual Private Database" for more information about using Data Redaction with VPD.)

- You cannot define a Data Redaction policy on a virtual column. In addition, you cannot define a Data Redaction policy on a column that is involved in the SQL expression of any virtual column.

- column_description: Specifies a brief description of the column that you are redacting.

- function_type: Specifies a function that sets the type of redaction. See the following sections for more information:

- "Syntax for Creating a Full Redaction Policy"

- "Syntax for Creating a Partial Redaction Policy"

- "Syntax for Creating a Regular Expression-Based Redaction Policy"

- "Syntax for Creating a Random Redaction Policy"

- "Syntax for Creating a Policy with No Redaction"

If you omit the function_type parameter, then the default redaction function_type setting is DBMS_REDACT.FULL.

- function_parameters: Specifies how the column redaction should appear for partial redaction. See "Syntax for Creating a Partial Redaction Policy".

- expression: Specifies a Boolean SQL expression to determine how the policy is applied. Redaction takes place only if this policy expression evaluates to TRUE. See "Using Expressions to Define Conditions for Data Redaction Policies".

- enable: When set to TRUE, enables the policy upon creation. When set to FALSE, it creates the policy as a disabled policy. The default is TRUE. After you create the policy, you can disable or enable it. See the following sections:

- "Disabling an Oracle Data Redaction Policy"

- "Enabling an Oracle Data Redaction Policy"

- regexp_pattern, regexp_replace_string, regexp_position, regexp_position, regexp_occurrence, regexp_match_parameter: Enable you to use regular expressions to redact data, either fully or partially. If the regexp_pattern does not match anything in the actual data, then full redaction will take place, so be careful when specifying the regexp_pattern. Ensure that all of the values in the column conform to the semantics of the regular expression you are using. See "Syntax for Creating a Regular Expression-Based Redaction Policy" for more information.

Using Expressions to Define Conditions for Data Redaction Policies

When you create any Oracle Data Redaction policy, you must use the expression parameter in the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY procedure to specify the conditions in which the policy applies.

Topics:

- About Using Expressions in Data Redaction Policies

- Applying the Redaction Policy Based on User Environment

- Applying the Redaction Policy Based on Database Roles

- Applying the Redaction Policy Based on Oracle Label Security Label Dominance

- Applying the Redaction Policy Based on Oracle Application Express Session States

- Applying the Redaction Policy to All Users

About Using Expressions in Data Redaction Policies

The expression parameter of the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY procedure defines a Boolean expression that must evaluate to TRUE before the redaction can table place.

This expression must be based on one of the following functions:

- SYS_CONTEXT, using a specified namespace. The default namespace for SYS_CONTEXT is USERENV, which includes values such as SESSION_USER and CLIENT_IDENTIFIER. (See Oracle Database SQL Language Reference for detailed information about this function.) Another namespace that you can use is the SYS_SESSION_ROLES namespace, which contains attributes for each role.

- The following Oracle Application Express functions:

- V, which is a wrapper for the APEX_UTIL.GET_SESSION_STATE function

- NV, which is a wrapper for the APEX_UTIL.GET_NUMERIC_SESSION_STATE function

See Oracle Application Express API Reference for more information about these APEX_UTIL package functions.

- The OLS_LABEL_DOMINATES function, described in Oracle Label Security Administrator's Guide, which is a wrapper for the LBACSYS.OLS_LABEL_DOMINATES function.

Follow these guidelines when you write the expression:

- Use only the following operators: =, !=, >, <, >=, <=

- Because the expression must evaluate to TRUE for redaction, be careful when making comparisons with NULL. Remember that in SQL the value NULL is undefined, so comparisons with NULL tend to return FALSE.

- Do not use user-created functions in the expression parameter; this is not permitted.

Remember that for user SYS and users who have the EXEMPT REDACTION POLICY privilege, all of the Data Redaction policies are bypassed, so the results of their queries are not redacted. See the following sections for more information about users who are exempted from Data Redaction policies:

- "Exemption of Users from Oracle Data Redaction Policies"

- "Oracle Data Pump Security Model for Oracle Data Redaction"

Applying the Redaction Policy Based on User Environment

You can apply a Data Redaction policy based on the user’s environment, such as the session user name or a client identifier.

- Use the USERENV namespace of the SYS_CONTEXT function in the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY expression parameter to apply the policy based on a user’s environment.

For example, to apply the policy only to the session user name psmith:

expression  => 'SYS_CONTEXT(''USERENV'',''SESSION_USER'') = ''PSMITH'''

See Also:

Oracle Database SQL Language Reference for information about more namespaces that you can use with the SYS_CONTEXT function

Applying the Redaction Policy Based on Database Roles

You can apply a Data Redaction policy based on a database role, such as the DBA role.

- Use the SYS_SESSION_ROLES namespace in the SYS_CONTEXT function to apply the policy based on a user role.
This namespace contains attributes for each role. The value of the attribute is TRUE if the specified role is enabled for the querying application user; the value is FALSE if the role is not enabled.

For example, suppose you wanted only supervisors to be allowed to see the actual data. The following example shows how to use the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY expression parameter to set the policy to show the actual data to any application user who has the supervisor role enabled, but redact the data for all of the other application users.

expression  => 'SYS_CONTEXT(''SYS_SESSION_ROLES'',''SUPERVISOR'') = ''FALSE'''

Applying the Redaction Policy Based on Oracle Label Security Label Dominance

You can set a condition on which to apply a Data Redaction policy based on the dominance of Oracle Label Security labels.

Note:

This feature is available starting with Oracle Database 12c Release 1 (12.1.0.2).

- Use the public standalone function OLS_LABEL_DOMINATES to check the dominance of a session label. This function returns 1 (TRUE) if the session label of the specified policy_name value dominates or is equal to the label that is specified by the label parameter; otherwise, it returns 0 (FALSE).

For example, to apply a Data Redaction policy only in cases where the session label for the policy hr_ols_pol does not dominate nor is equal to label hs:

expression  => 'OLS_LABEL_DOMINATES (''hr_ols_pol'',''hs'') = 0'

Applying the Redaction Policy Based on Oracle Application Express Session States

You can apply a Data Redaction policy based on an Oracle Application Express (APEX) session state.

- Use either of the following public Application Express APIs in the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY expression parameter to apply the policy on an Oracle Application Express session state:

- V, which is a synonym for the APEX_UTIL.GET_SESSION_STATE function

- NV, which is a synonym for the APEX_UTIL.GET_NUMERIC_SESSION_STATE function

For example, to set the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY expression parameter if you wanted redaction to take place when the application item called G_JOB has the value CLERK:

expression => 'V(''APP_USER'') != ''mavis@example.com'' or V(''APP_USER'') is null'

You can, for example, use these functions to redact data based on a job or a privilege role that is stored in a session state in an APEX application.

If you want redaction to take place when the querying user is not within the context of an APEX application (when the query is issued from outside the APEX framework, for example directly through SQL*Plus), then use an IS NULL clause as follows. This policy expression causes actual data to be shown to user mavis only when her query comes from within an APEX application. Otherwise, the query result is redacted.

See Also:

Oracle Application Express API Reference

Applying the Redaction Policy to All Users

You can apply the policy irrespective of the context to any user, with no filtering.

However, be aware that user SYS and users who have the EXEMPT REDACTION POLICY privilege are always except from Oracle Data Redaction policies.

- To apply the policy to users who are not SYS or have been granted the EXEMPT REDACTION POLICY privilege, write the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY expression parameter to evaluate to TRUE.

For example:

expression  => '1=1'

See Also:

"Exemption of Users from Oracle Data Redaction Policies"

Creating a Full Redaction Policy and Altering the Full Redaction Value

You can create a full redaction policy to redact all contents in a data column, and optionally, you can alter the default full redaction value.

Topics:

- Creating a Full Redaction Policy

- Altering the Default Full Data Redaction Value

Creating a Full Redaction Policy

A full data redaction policy redacts all the contents of a data column.

Topics:

- About Creating Full Data Redaction Policies

- Syntax for Creating a Full Redaction Policy

- Example: Full Redaction Policy

- Example: Fully Redacted Character Values

About Creating Full Data Redaction Policies

To set a redaction policy to redact all data in the column, you must set the function_type parameter to DBMS_REDACT.FULL.

By default, NUMBER data type columns are replaced with zero (0) and character data type columns are replaced with a single space ( ). You can modify this default by using the DBMS_REDACT.UPDATE_FULL_REDACTION_VALUES procedure.

See Also:

"Altering the Default Full Data Redaction Value" if you want to modify the default full redaction value

Syntax for Creating a Full Redaction Policy

The DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY procedure enables you to create a full redaction policy.

The DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY fields for creating a full data redaction policy are as follows:

DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY (
object_schema           IN VARCHAR2 := NULL,
object_name             IN VARCHAR2,
column_name             IN VARCHAR2 := NULL,
policy_name             IN VARCHAR2,
function_type           IN BINARY_INTEGER := NULL,
expression              IN VARCHAR2,
enable                  IN BOOLEAN := TRUE);

In this specification:

- object_schema, object_name, column_name, policy_name, expression, enable: See "General Syntax of the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY Procedure".

- function_type: Specifies the function used to set the type of redaction. Enter DBMS_REDACT.FULL.
If you omit the function_type parameter, then the default redaction function_type setting is DBMS_REDACT.FULL.

Remember that the data type of the column determines which function_type settings that you are permitted to use. See "Comparison of Full, Partial, and Random Redaction Based on Data Types".

Example: Full Redaction Policy

You can use the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY PL/SQL procedure to create a full redaction policy.

Example 10-1 shows how to use full redaction for all the values in the HR.EMPLOYEES table COMMISSION_PCT column. The expression parameter applies the policy to any user querying the table, except for users who have been granted the EXEMPT REDACTION POLICY system privilege. (See "Exemption of Users from Oracle Data Redaction Policies" for more information about the EXEMPT REDACTION POLICY system privilege.)

Example 10-1 Full Data Redaction Policy

BEGIN
DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY(
object_schema    => 'hr',
object_name      => 'employees',
column_name      => 'commission_pct',
policy_name      => 'redact_com_pct',
function_type    => DBMS_REDACT.FULL,
expression       => '1=1');
END;
/

Query and redacted result:

SELECT COMMISSION_PCT FROM HR.EMPLOYEES;

COMMISSION_PCT
--------------
0
0
0

Example: Fully Redacted Character Values

You can use the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY PL/SQL procedure to create a policy that fully redacts character values.

Example 10-2 shows how to redact fully the user IDs of the user_id column in the mavis.cust_info table. The user_id column is of the VARCHAR2 data type. The output is a blank string. The expression setting enables users who have the MGR role to view the user IDs.

Example 10-2 Fully Redacted Character Values

BEGIN
DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY(
object_schema   => 'mavis',
object_name     => 'cust_info',
column_name     => 'user_id',
policy_name     => 'redact_cust_user_ids',
function_type   => DBMS_REDACT.FULL,
expression      => 'SYS_CONTEXT(''SYS_SESSION_ROLES'',''MGR'') = ''FALSE''');
END;
/

Query and redacted result:

SELECT user_id FROM mavis.cust_info;

USER_ID
------------
0
0
0

Altering the Default Full Data Redaction Value

To alter the default full data redaction value, you use the DBMS_REDACT.UPDATE_FULL_REDACTION_VALUES procedure to modify this value.

Topics:

- About Altering the Default Full Data Redaction Value

- Syntax for the DBMS_REDACT.UPDATE_FULL_REDACTION_VALUES Procedure

- Modifying the Default Full Data Redaction Value

About Altering the Default Full Data Redaction Value

You can alter the default displayed values for full Data Redaction polices.

By default, 0 is the redacted value when Oracle Database performs full redaction (DBMS_REDACT.FULL) on a column of the NUMBER data type. If you want to change it to another value (for example, 7), then you can run the DBMS_REDACT.UPDATE_FULL_REDACTION_VALUES procedure to modify this value. The modification applies to all of the Data Redaction policies in the current database instance. After you modify a value, you must restart the database for it to take effect. You can find the current values by querying the REDACTION_VALUES_FOR_TYPE_FULL data dictionary view.

Be aware that this change affects all Data Redaction policies in the database that use full data redaction. Before you alter the default full data redaction value, examine the affect that this change would have on existing full Data Redaction policies.

Syntax for the DBMS_REDACT.UPDATE_FULL_REDACTION_VALUES Procedure

The DBMS_REDACT.UPDATE_FULL_REDACTION_VALUES procedure accommodates the standard supported Oracle Database data types.

The syntax is as follows:

DBMS_REDACT.UPDATE_FULL_REDACTION_VALUES (
number_val       IN NUMBER                    NULL,
binfloat_val     IN BINARY_FLOAT              NULL,
bindouble_val    IN BINARY_DOUBLE             NULL,
char_val         IN CHAR                      NULL,
varchar_val      IN VARCHAR2                  NULL,
nchar_val        IN NCHAR                     NULL,
nvarchar_val     IN NVARCHAR2                 NULL,
date_val         IN DATE                      NULL,
ts_val           IN TIMESTAMP                 NULL,
tswtz_val        IN TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE  NULL,
blob_val         IN BLOB                      NULL,
clob_val         IN CLOB                      NULL,
nclob_val        IN NCLOB                     NULL);

In this specification:

- number_val modifies the default value for columns of the NUMBER data type.

- binfloat_val modifies the default value for columns of the BINARY_FLOAT data type.

- bindouble_val modifies the default value for columns of the BINARY_DOUBLE data type.

- char_val modifies the default value for columns of the CHAR data type.

- varchar_val modifies the default value for columns of the VARCHAR2 data type.

- nchar_val modifies the default value for columns of the NCHAR data type.

- nvarchar_val modifies the default value for columns of the NVARCHAR2 data type.

- date_val modifies the default value for columns of the DATE data type.

- ts_val modifies the default value for columns of the TIMESTAMP data type.

- tswtz_val modifies the default value for columns of the TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE data type.

- blob_val modifies the default value for columns of the BLOB data type.

- clob_val modifies the default value for columns of the CLOB data type.

- nclob modifies the default value for columns of the NCLOB data type.

Modifying the Default Full Data Redaction Value

To modify the default full data redaction value, use the DBMS_REDACT.UPDATE_FULL_REDACTION_VALUES procedure.

1. Log in to the database instance as a user who has been granted the EXECUTE privilege on the DBMS_REDACT PL/SQL package.

2. Check the value that you want to change.
For example, to check the current value for columns that use the NUMBER data type:

SELECT NUMBER_VALUE FROM REDACTION_VALUES_FOR_TYPE_FULL;

NUMBER_VALUE
------------
0

3. Run the DBMS_REDACT.UPDATE_FULL_REDACTION_VALUES procedure to modify the value.
For example:

EXEC DBMS_REDACT.UPDATE_FULL_REDACTION_VALUES (number_val => 7);

4. Restart the database instance.
For example:

SHUTDOWN IMMEDIATE

STARTUP

Creating a Partial Redaction Policy

In partial data redaction, you can redact portions of data, and for different kinds of data types.

Topics:

- About Creating Partial Redaction Policies

- Syntax for Creating a Partial Redaction Policy

- Creating Partial Redaction Policies Using Fixed Character Formats

- Creating Partial Redaction Policies Using Character Data Types

- Creating Partial Redaction Policies Using Number Data Types

- Creating Partial Redaction Policies Using Date-Time Data Types

About Creating Partial Redaction Policies

In partial data redaction, only a portion of the data, such as the first five digits of an identification number, are redacted.

For example, you can redact most of a credit card number with asterisks (*), except for the last 4 digits. You can create policies for columns that use character, number, or date-time data types. For policies that redact character data types, you can use fixed character redaction formats. If you have the Enterprise Manager for Oracle Database 12.1.0.7 plug-in deployed on your system, then you can also create and save custom redaction formats.

Note:

In previous releases, the term shortcut was used for the term format.

Syntax for Creating a Partial Redaction Policy

The DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY statement enables you to create policies that redact specific parts of the data returned to the application.

The DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY fields for creating a partial redaction policy are as follows:

DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY (
object_schema           IN VARCHAR2 := NULL,
object_name             IN VARCHAR2,
column_name             IN VARCHAR2 := NULL,
policy_name             IN VARCHAR2,
function_type           IN BINARY_INTEGER := NULL,
function_parameters     IN VARCHAR2 := NULL,
expression              IN VARCHAR2,
enable                  IN BOOLEAN := TRUE);

In this specification:

- object_schema, object_name, column_name, policy_name, expression, enable: See "General Syntax of the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY Procedure"

- function_type: Specifies the function used to set the type of redaction. Enter DBMS_REDACT.PARTIAL.

- function_parameters: The parameters that you set here depend on the data type of the column specified for the column_name parameter. See the following sections for details:

- "Creating Partial Redaction Policies Using Fixed Character Formats"

- "Creating Partial Redaction Policies Using Character Data Types"

- "Creating Partial Redaction Policies Using Number Data Types"

- "Creating Partial Redaction Policies Using Date-Time Data Types"

Creating Partial Redaction Policies Using Fixed Character Formats

The DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY function_parameters parameter enables you to use fixed character formats.

Topics:

- Settings for Fixed Character Shortcuts

- Example: Partial Redaction Policy Using a Fixed Character Shortcut

Settings for Fixed Character Formats

Oracle Data Redaction provides special predefined formats to configure policies that use fixed characters.

Table 10-2 describes DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY function_parameters parameter formats that you can use for commonly redacted Social Security numbers, postal codes, and credit cards that use either the VARCHAR2 or NUMBER data types for their columns.

Table 10-2 Partial Fixed Character Redaction Formats

Format

Description

DBMS_REDACT.REDACT_US_SSN_F5

Redacts the first 5 numbers of Social Security numbers when the column is a VARCHAR2 data type. For example, the number 987-65-4320 becomes XXX-XX-4320.

DBMS_REDACT.REDACT_US_SSN_L4

Redacts the last 4 numbers of Social Security numbers when the column is a VARCHAR2 data type. For example, the number 987-65-4320 becomes 987-65-XXXX.

DBMS_REDACT.REDACT_US_SSN_ENTIRE

Redacts the entire Social Security number when the column is a VARCHAR2 data type. For example, the number 987-65-4320 becomes XXX-XX-XXXX.

DBMS_REDACT.REDACT_NUM_US_SSN_F5

Redacts the first 5 numbers of Social Security numbers when the column is a NUMBER data type. For example, the number 987654320 becomes XXXXX4320.

DBMS_REDACT.REDACT_NUM_US_SSN_L4

Redacts the last 4 numbers of Social Security numbers when the column is a NUMBER data type. For example, the number 987654320 becomes 98765XXXX.

DBMS_REDACT.REDACT_NUM_US_SSN_ENTIRE

Redacts the entire Social Security number when the column is a NUMBER data type. For example, the number 987654320 becomes XXXXXXXXX.

DBMS_REDACT.REDACT_ZIP_CODE

Redacts a 5-digit postal code when the column is a VARCHAR2 data type. For example, 95476 becomes XXXXX.

DBMS_REDACT.REDACT_NUM_ZIP_CODE

Redacts a 5-digit postal code when the column is a NUMBER data type. For example, 95476 becomes XXXXX.

DBMS_REDACT.REDACT_DATE_MILLENNIUM

Redacts dates that are in the DD-MON-YY format to 01-JAN-00 (January 1, 2000).

DBMS_REDACT.REDACT_DATE_EPOCH

Redacts all dates to 01-JAN-70.

DBMS_REDACT.REDACT_CCN16_F12

Redacts a 16-digit credit card number, leaving the last 4 digits displayed. For example, 5105 1051 0510 5100 becomes ****-****-****-5100.

See Also:

"General Syntax of the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY Procedure" for information about other DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY parameters

Example: Partial Redaction Policy Using a Fixed Character Format

You can use the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY PL/SQL procedure to create a partial redaction policy that uses a fixed character format.

Example 10-3 shows how Social Security numbers in a VARCHAR2 data type column and can be redacted using the REDACT_US_SSN_F5 format.

Example 10-3 Partially Redacted Character Values

BEGIN
DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY(
object_schema       => 'mavis',
object_name         => 'cust_info',
column_name         => 'ssn',
policy_name         => 'redact_cust_ssns3',
function_type       => DBMS_REDACT.PARTIAL,
function_parameters => DBMS_REDACT.REDACT_US_SSN_F5,
expression          => '1=1',
policy_description  => 'Partially redacts 1st 5 digits in SS numbers',
column_description  => 'ssn contains Social Security numbers');
END;
/

Query and redacted result:

SELECT ssn FROM mavis.cust_info;

SSN
-------
XXX-XX-4320
XXX-XX-4323
XXX-XX-4325
XXX-XX-4329

Creating Partial Redaction Policies Using Character Data Types

The DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY function_parameters parameter enables you to redact character data types.

Topics:

- Settings for Character Data Types

- Example: Partial Redaction Policy Using a Character Data Type

Settings for Character Data Types

Oracle Data Redaction provides special settings to configure policies that use character data types.

When you set the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY function_parameters parameter to define partial redaction of character data types, enter values for the following settings in the order shown. Separate each value with a comma

Note:

Be aware that you must use a fixed width character set for the partial redaction. In other words, each character redacted must be replaced by another of equal byte length. If you want to use a variable-length character set (for example, UTF-8), then you must use a regular expression-based redaction. See "Syntax for Creating a Regular Expression-Based Redaction Policy" for more information.

The settings are as follows:

1. Input format: Defines how the data is currently formatted. Enter V for each character that potentially can be redacted, such as all of the digits in a credit card number. Enter F for each character that you want to format using a formatting character, such as hyphens or blank spaces in the credit card number. Ensure that each character has a corresponding V or F value. (The input format values are not case-sensitive.)

2. Output format: Defines how the displayed data should be formatted. Enter V for each character to be potentially redacted. Replace each F character in the input format with the character that you want to use for the displayed output, such as a hyphen. (The output format values are not case-sensitive.)

3. Mask character: Specifies the character to be used for the redaction. Enter a single character to use for the redaction, such as an asterisk (*).

4. Starting digit position: Specifies the starting V digit position for the redaction.

5. Ending digit position: Specifies the ending V digit position for the redaction. Do not include the F positions when you decide on the ending position value.

For example, the following setting redacts the first 12 V digits of the credit card number 5105 1051 0510 5100, and replaces the F positions (which are blank spaces) with hyphens to format it in a style normally used for credit card numbers, resulting in ****-****-****-4320.

function_parameters  => 'VVVVFVVVVFVVVVFVVVV,VVVV-VVVV-VVVV-VVVV,*,1,12',

See Also:

"General Syntax of the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY Procedure" for information about other DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY parameters

Example: Partial Redaction Policy Using a Character Data Type

You can use the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY PL/SQL procedure to create a partial redaction policy that uses a character data type.

Example 10-4 shows how to redact Social Security numbers that are in a VARCHAR2 data type column and to preserve the character hyphens in the Social Security number.

Example 10-4 Partially Redacted Character Values

BEGIN
DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY(
object_schema       => 'mavis',
object_name         => 'cust_info',
column_name         => 'ssn',
policy_name         => 'redact_cust_ssns2',
function_type       => DBMS_REDACT.PARTIAL,
function_parameters => 'VVVFVVFVVVV,VVV-VV-VVVV,*,1,5',
expression          => '1=1',
policy_description  => 'Partially redacts Social Security numbers',
column_description  => 'ssn contains character Social Security numbers');
END;
/

Query and redacted result:

SELECT ssn FROM mavis.cust_info;

SSN
-----------
***-**-4320
***-**-4323
***-**-4325
***-**-4329

Creating Partial Redaction Policies Using Number Data Types

The DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY function_parameters parameter enables you to redact number data types.

Topics:

- Settings for Number Data Types

- Example: Partial Redaction Policy Using a Number Data Type

Settings for Number Data Types

When you set values for the number data type, you must specify a mask character, a starting digit position, and ending digit position.

For partial redaction of number data types, you can enter values for the following settings for the function_parameters parameter of the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY procedure, in the order shown.

1. Mask character: Specifies the character to display. Enter a number from 0 to 9.

2. Starting digit position: Specifies the starting digit position for the redaction, such as 1 for the first digit.

3. Ending digit position: Specifies the ending digit position for the redaction.

For example, the following setting redacts the first five digits of the Social Security number 987654321, resulting in 999994321.

function_parameters  => '9,1,5',

See Also:

"General Syntax of the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY Procedure" for information about other DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY parameters

Example: Partial Redaction Policy Using a Number Data Type

You can use the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY PL/SQL procedure to create a partial redaction policy that uses a number data type.

Example 10-5 shows how to partially redact a set of Social Security numbers in the mavis.cust_info table, for any application user who logs in. (Hence, the expression parameter evaluates to TRUE.)

This type of redaction is useful when the application is expecting a formatted number and not a string. In this scenario, the Social Security numbers are in a column of the data type NUMBER. In other words, the ssn column contains numbers only, not other characters such as hyphens or blank spaces.

Example 10-5 Partially Redacted Data Redaction Numeric Values

BEGIN
DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY(
object_schema       => 'mavis',
object_name         => 'cust_info',
column_name         => 'ssn',
policy_name         => 'redact_cust_ssns1',
function_type       => DBMS_REDACT.PARTIAL,
function_parameters => '7,1,5',
expression          => '1=1',
policy_description  => 'Partially redacts Social Security numbers',
column_description  => 'ssn contains numeric Social Security numbers');
END;
/

Query and redacted result:

SELECT ssn FROM mavis.cust_info;

SSN
---------
777774320
777774323
777774325
777774329

Creating Partial Redaction Policies Using Date-Time Data Types

The DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY function_parameters parameter enables you to redact date-time data types.

Topics:

- Settings for Date-Time Data Types

- Example: Partial Redaction Policy Using Date-Time Data Type

Settings for Date-Time Data Types

Oracle Data Redaction provides special settings for configuring date-time data types.

For partial redaction of date-time data types, enter values for the following DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY function_parameters parameter settings.

Enter these values in the order shown:

1. m: Redacts the month. To redact with a month name, append 1–12 to lowercase m. For example, m5 displays as MAY. To omit redaction, enter an uppercase M.

2. d: Redacts the day of the month. To redact with a day of the month, append 1–31 to a lowercase d. For example, d7 displays as 07. If you enter a higher number than the days of the month (for example, 31 for the month of February), then the last day of the month is displayed (for example, 28). To omit redaction, enter an uppercase D.

3. y: Redacts the year. To redact with a year, append 1–9999 to a lowercase y. For example, y1984 displays as 84. To omit redaction, enter an uppercase Y.

4. h: Redacts the hour. To redact with an hour, append 0–23 to a lowercase h. For example, h20 displays as 20. To omit redaction, enter an uppercase H.

5. m: Redacts the minute. To redact with a minute, append 0–59 to a lowercase m. For example, m30 displays as 30. To omit redaction, enter an uppercase M.

6. s: Redacts the second. To redact with a second, append 0–59 to a lowercase s. For example, s45 displays as 45. To omit redaction, enter an uppercase S.

See Also:

"General Syntax of the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY Procedure" for information about other DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY parameters

Example: Partial Redaction Policy Using Date-Time Data Type

You can use the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY PL/SQL procedure to create a partial redaction policy that uses the date-time data type.

Example 10-6 shows how to partially redact a date. This example redacts the birth year of customers; replacing it with 13, but retaining the remaining values.

Example 10-6 Partially Redacted Data Redaction Using Date-Time Values

BEGIN
DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY(
object_schema       => 'mavis',
object_name         => 'cust_info',
column_name         => 'birth_date',
policy_name         => 'redact_cust_bdate',
function_type       => DBMS_REDACT.PARTIAL,
function_parameters => 'mdy2013HMS',
expression          => '1=1',
policy_description  => 'Replaces birth year with 2013',
column_description  => 'birth_date contains customer's birthdate');
END;
/

Query and redacted result:

SELECT birth_date FROM mavis.cust_info;

BIRTH_DATE
07-DEC-13 09.45.40.000000 AM
12-OCT-13 04.23.29.000000 AM

Creating a Regular Expression-Based Redaction Policy

A regular expression-based redaction policy enables you to redact data based on a search-and-replace model.

Topics:

- About Creating Regular Expression-Based Redaction Policies

- Syntax for Creating a Regular Expression-Based Redaction Policy

- Regular Expression-Based Redaction Policies Using Formats

- Custom Regular Expression Redaction Policies

About Creating Regular Expression-Based Redaction Policies

Regular expression-based redaction enables you to search for patterns of data to redact.

For example, you can use regular expressions to redact email addresses, which can have varying character lengths. It is designed for use with character data only. You can use formats for the search and replace operation, or you can create custom pattern formats.

You cannot use regular expressions to redact a subset of the values in a column. The REGEXP_PATTERN (regular expression pattern) must match all of the values in order for the REGEXP_REPLACE_STRING setting to take effect, and the REGEXP_REPLACE_STRING must change the value.

For rows where the REGEXP_PATTERN fails to match, Data Redaction performs DBMS_REDACT.FULL redaction. This mitigates the risk of a mistake in the REGEXP_PATTERN which causes the regular expression to fail to match all of the values in the column, from showing the actual data for those rows which it failed to match.

In addition, if no change to the value occurs as a result of the REGEXP_REPLACE_STRING setting during regular expression replacement operation, Data Redaction performs DBMS_REDACT.FULL redaction.

Syntax for Creating a Regular Expression-Based Redaction Policy

To create a regular expression-based redaction policy, you can use the regexp_* parameters of the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY procedure.

The DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY fields for creating a regular expression-based data redaction policy are as follows:

DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY (
object_schema           IN VARCHAR2 := NULL,
object_name             IN VARCHAR2,
column_name             IN VARCHAR2 := NULL,
policy_name             IN VARCHAR2,
function_type           IN BINARY_INTEGER := NULL,
expression              IN VARCHAR2,
enable                  IN BOOLEAN := TRUE,
regexp_pattern          IN VARCHAR2 := NULL,
regexp_replace_string   IN VARCHAR2 := NULL,
regexp_position         IN BINARY_INTEGER := 1,
regexp_occurrence       IN BINARY_INTEGER := 0,
regexp_match_parameter  IN VARCHAR2 := NULL);

In this specification:

- object_schema, object_name, column_name, policy_name, expression, enable: See "General Syntax of the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY Procedure".

- function_type: Specifies the function used to set the type of redaction. Enter DBMS_REDACT.REGEXP.
Note the following:

- When you set the function_type parameter to DBMS_REDACT.REGEXP, omit the function_parameters parameter.

- Specify the regular expressions—regexp_pattern, regexp_replace, regexp_position, regexp_occurrence, and regexp_match_parameter—in much the same way that you specify the pattern, replace, position, occurrence, and match_parameter arguments to the REGEXP_REPLACE SQL function. See Oracle Database SQL Language Reference for information about the REGEXP_REPLACE SQL function.

- regexp_pattern: Describes the search pattern for data that must be matched. If it finds a match, then Oracle Database replaces the data as specified by the regexp_replace_string setting. See the following sections for more information:

- "Regular Expression-Based Redaction Policies Using Formats"

- "Custom Regular Expression Redaction Policies"

- regexp_replace_string: Specifies how you want to replace the data to be redacted. See the following sections for more information:

- "Regular Expression-Based Redaction Policies Using Formats"

- "Custom Regular Expression Redaction Policies"

- regexp_position: Specifies the starting position for the string search. The value that you enter must be a positive integer indicating the character of the column_name data where Oracle Database should begin the search. The default is 1 or the RE_BEGINNING format, meaning that Oracle Database begins the search at the first character of the column_name data.

- regexp_occurrence: Specifies how to perform the search and replace operation. The value that you enter must be a nonnegative integer indicating the occurrence of the replace operation:

- If you specify 0 or the RE_ALL format, then Oracle Database replaces all of the occurrences of the match.

- If you specify the RE_FIRST format, then Oracle Database replaces the first occurrence of the match.

- If you specify a positive integer n, then Oracle Database replaces the nth occurrence of the match.

If the occurrence is greater than 1, then the database searches for the second occurrence beginning with the first character following the first occurrence of pattern, and so forth.

- regexp_match_parameter: Specifies a text literal that lets you change the default matching behavior of the function. The behavior of this parameter is the same for this function as for the REGEXP_REPLACE SQL function. See Oracle Database SQL Language Reference for detailed information.
To filter the search so that it is not case sensitive, specify the RE_MATCH_CASE_INSENSITIVE format.

Regular Expression-Based Redaction Policies Using Formats

You can use formats for both the regexp_pattern and regexp_replace_string parameters in the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY procedure.

Topics:

- Regular Expression Shortcuts

- Example: Regular Expression Redaction Policy Using Shortcuts

Regular Expression Formats

The regular expression formats represent commonly used expressions that you may want to use, such as replacing digits within a credit card number.

Table 10-3 describes the formats that you can use with the regexp_pattern parameter in the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY procedure.

Table 10-3 Formats for the regexp_pattern Parameter

Format

Description

DBMS_REDACT.RE_PATTERN_ANY_DIGIT

Searches for any digit. Replaces the identified pattern with the characters specified by theregexp_replace_string parameter. The DBMS_REDACT.RE_PATTERN_ANY_DIGIT is commonly used with the following values of the regexp_replace_string parameter:

regexp_replace_string => DBMS_REDACT.RE_REDACT_WITH_SINGLE_X,

This setting replaces any matched digit with the X character.

The following setting replaces any matched digit with the 1 character.

regexp_replace_string => DBMS_REDACT.RE_REDACT_WITH_SINGLE_1,

DBMS_REDACT.RE_PATTERN_CC_L6_T4

Searches for the middle digits of any credit card that has 6 leading digits and 4 trailing digits. Replaces the identified pattern with the characters specified by theregexp_replace_string parameter.

The appropriate regexp_replace_string setting to use with this format is DBMS_REDACT.RE_REDACT_CC_MIDDLE_DIGITS, which finds any credit card that could have 6 leading and 4 trailing digits left as actual data. It then redacts the middle digits.

DBMS_REDACT.RE_PATTERN_US_PHONE

Searches for any U.S. telephone number. Replaces the identified pattern with the characters specified by theregexp_replace_string parameter

The appropriate regexp_replace_string setting to use with this format is DBMS_REDACT.RE_REDACT_US_PHONE_L7, which finds United States phone numbers and then redacts the last 7 digits.

DBMS_REDACT.RE_PATTERN_EMAIL_ADDRESS

Searches for any email address. Replaces the identified pattern with the characters specified by theregexp_replace_string parameter

The appropriate regexp_replace_string settings that you can use with this format are as follows:

RE_REDACT_EMAIL_NAME, which finds any email address and redacts the email user name

RE_REDACT_EMAIL_DOMAIN, which finds any email address and redacts the email domain

RE_REDACT_EMAIL_ENTIRE, which finds any email address and redacts the entire email address

DBMS_REDACT.RE_PATTERN_IP_ADDRESS

Searches for an IP address. Replaces the identified pattern with the characters specified by theregexp_replace_string parameter.

The appropriate regexp_replace_string setting to use with this format is DBMS_REDACT.RE_REDACT_IP_L3, which replaces the last section of the dotted decimal string representation of an IP address with the characters 999 to indicate that it was redacted.

Table 10-4 describes formats that you can use with the regexp_replace_string parameter in the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY procedure.

Table 10-4 Formats for the regexp_replace_string Parameter

Format

Description

DBMS_REDACT.RE_REDACT_WITH_SINGLE_X

Replaces the data with a single X character for each of the actual data characters. For example, the credit card number 5105 1051 0510 5100 could be replaced with XXXX XXXX XXXX XXXX.

DBMS_REDACT.RE_REDACT_WITH_SINGLE_1

Replaces the data with a single 1 digit for each of the actual data digits. For example, the credit card number 5105 1051 0510 5100 could be replaced with 1111 1111 1111 1111.

DBMS_REDACT.RE_REDACT_CC_MIDDLE_DIGITS

Redacts the middle digits in credit card numbers, as specified by setting the regexp_pattern parameter with the RE_PATTERN_CC_L6_T4 format. The redaction replaces each redacted character with an X. For example, the credit card number 5105 1051 0510 5100 could be replaced with 5105 10XX XXXX 5100.

DBMS_REDACT.RE_REDACT_PHONE_L7

Redacts the last 7 digits of U.S. telephone numbers, as specified by setting the regexp_pattern parameter with the RE_PATTERN_US_PHONE format. The redaction replaces each redacted character with an X. This setting only applies to hyphenated phone numbers, not phone numbers with spaces. For example, the telephone number 415-555-0100 could be replaced with 415-XXX-XXXX.

DBMS_REDACT.RE_REDACT_EMAIL_NAME

Redacts the email name as specified by setting the regexp_pattern parameter with the RE_PATTERN_EMAIL_ADDRESS format. The redaction replaces the email user name with four x characters. For example, the email address psmith@example.com could be replaced with xxxx@example.com.

DBMS_REDACT.RE_REDACT_EMAIL_DOMAIN

Redacts the email domain name as specified by setting the regexp_pattern parameter with the RE_PATTERN_EMAIL_ADDRESS format. The redaction replaces the domain with five x characters. For example, the email address psmith@example.com could be replaced with psmith@xxxxx.com.

DBMS_REDACT.RE_REDACT_IP_L3

Redacts the last three digits of the IP address as specified by setting the regexp_pattern parameter with the RE_PATTERN_IP_ADDRESS format. For example, the IP address 192.0.2.254 could be replaced with 192.0.2.999, which is an invalid IP address.

See Also:

"General Syntax of the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY Procedure" for information about other DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY parameters

Example: Regular Expression Redaction Policy Using Formats

You can use the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY PL/SQL procedure to create a regular expression redaction policy that uses formats.

Example 10-7 shows how to use regular expression format to redact credit card numbers.

Example 10-7 Regular Expression Data Redaction Character Values

BEGIN
DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY(
object_schema          => 'mavis',
object_name            => 'cust_info',
column_name            => 'cc_num',
policy_name            => 'redact_cust_cc_nums',
function_type          => DBMS_REDACT.REGEXP,
function_parameters    => NULL,
expression             => '1=1',
regexp_pattern         => DBMS_REDACT.RE_PATTERN_CC_L6_T4,
regexp_replace_string  => DBMS_REDACT.RE_REDACT_CC_MIDDLE_DIGITS,
regexp_position        => DBMS_REDACT.RE_BEGINNING,
regexp_occurrence      => DBMS_REDACT.RE_FIRST,
regexp_match_parameter => DBMS_REDACT.RE_MATCH_CASE_INSENSITIVE,
policy_description     => 'Regular expressions to redact credit card numbers',
column_description     => 'cc_num contains customer credit card numbers');
END;
/

Query and redacted result:

SELECT cc_num FROM mavis.cust_info;

CC_NUM
-------
401288XXXXXX1881
411111XXXXXX1111
555555XXXXXX1111
511111XXXXXX1118

Custom Regular Expression Redaction Policies

You can customize regular expressions in Data Redaction policies.

Topics:

- Settings for Custom Regular Expressions

- Example: Custom Regular Expression Redaction Policy

Settings for Custom Regular Expressions

Oracle Data Redaction provides special settings to configure policies that use regular expressions.

To create custom regular expression redaction policies, you use the following parameters in the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY procedure:

- regexp_pattern: This pattern is usually a text literal and can be of any of the data types CHAR, VARCHAR2, NCHAR, or NVARCHAR2. The pattern can contain up to 512 bytes. For further information about writing the regular expression for the regexp_pattern parameter, see the description of the pattern argument of the REGEXP_REPLACE SQL function in Oracle Database SQL Language Reference, because the support that Data Redaction provides for regular expression matching is similar to that of the REGEXP_REPLACE SQL function.

- regexp_replace_string: This data can be of any of the data types CHAR, VARCHAR2, NCHAR, or NVARCHAR2. The regexp_replace_string can contain up to 500 back references to subexpressions in the form \n, where n is a number from 1 to 9. If you want to include a backslash (\) in the regexp_replace_string setting, then you must precede it with the escape character, which is also a backslash. For example, to literally replace the matched pattern with \2 (rather than replace it with the second matched subexpression of the matched pattern), you enter \\2 in the regexp_replace_string setting. For more information, see Oracle Database SQL Language Reference.

See Also:

"General Syntax of the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY Procedure" for information about other DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY parameters

Example: Custom Regular Expression Redaction Policy

You can use the regexp* parameters of the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY PL/SQL procedure to create a custom regular expression redaction policy.

Example 10-8 shows how to use regular expressions to redact the emp_id column data. In this example, taken together, the regexp_pattern and regexp_replace_string parameters do the following: first, find the pattern of 9 digits. For reference, break them into three groups that contain the first 3, the next 2, and then the last 4 digits. Then, replace all 9 digits with XXXXX concatenated with the third group (the last 4 digits) as found in the original pattern.

Query and redacted result:

SELECT emp_id FROM mavis.cust_info;

EMP_ID
------------
XXXXX1234
XXXXX5678

Example 10-8 Partially Redacted Data Redaction Using Regular Expressions

BEGIN
DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY(
object_schema          => 'mavis',
object_name            => 'cust_info',
column_name            => 'emp_id',
policy_name            => 'redact_cust_ids',
function_type          => DBMS_REDACT.REGEXP,
expression             => '1=1',
regexp_pattern         => '(\d\d\d)(\d\d)(\d\d\d\d)',
regexp_replace_string  => 'XXXXX\3',
regexp_position        => 1,
regexp_occurrence      => 0,
regexp_match_parameter => 'i',
policy_description     => 'Redacts customer IDs using regular expression',
column_description     => 'emp_id contains employee ID numbers');
END;
/

Creating a Random Redaction Policy

A random redaction policy presents redacted data as randomly generated values, such as Ukjsl32[[]]]s.

Topics:

- Syntax for Creating a Random Redaction Policy

- Example: Random Redaction Policy

Syntax for Creating a Random Redaction Policy

A random redaction policy presents the redacted data to the querying application user as randomly generated values each time it is displayed, depending on the data type of the column. Be aware that LOB columns are not supported.

The DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY fields for creating a random redaction policy are as follows:

DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY (
object_schema           IN VARCHAR2 := NULL,
object_name             IN VARCHAR2,
column_name             IN VARCHAR2 := NULL,
policy_name             IN VARCHAR2,
function_type           IN BINARY_INTEGER := NULL,
expression              IN VARCHAR2,
enable                  IN BOOLEAN := TRUE);

In this specification:

- object_schema, object_name, column_name, policy_name, expression, enable: See "General Syntax of the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY Procedure".

- function_type: Specifies the function used to set the type of redaction. Enter DBMS_REDACT.RANDOM.
If you omit the function_type parameter, then the default redaction function_type setting is DBMS_REDACT.FULL.

Remember that the data type of the column determines which function_type settings that you are permitted to use. See "Comparison of Full, Partial, and Random Redaction Based on Data Types".

Example: Random Redaction Policy

You can use the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY PL/SQL procedure create a random redaction policy.

Example 10-9 shows how to generate random values. Each time you run the SELECT statement, the output will be different.

Example 10-9 Randomly Redacted Data Redaction Values

BEGIN
DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY(
object_schema   => 'mavis',
object_name     => 'cust_info',
column_name     => 'login_username',
policy_name     => 'redact_cust_rand_username',
function_type   => DBMS_REDACT.RANDOM,
expression      => 'SYS_CONTEXT(''USERENV'',''SESSION_USER'') = ''APP_USER''');
END;
/

Query and redacted result:

SELECT login_username FROM mavis.cust_info;

LOGIN_USERNAME
--------------
N[CG{\pTVcK

Creating a Policy That Uses No Redaction

You can create policies that use no redaction at all, for when you want to test the policy in a development environment.

Topics:

- Syntax for Creating a Policy with No Redaction

- Example: Performing No Redaction

Syntax for Creating a Policy with No Redaction

The None redaction type option enables you to test the internal operation of your redaction policies, with no effect on the results of queries against tables with policies defined on them.

You can use this option to test the redaction policy definitions before applying them to a production environment. Be aware that LOB columns are not supported.

The DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY fields for creating a policy with no redaction are as follows:

DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY (
object_schema           IN VARCHAR2 := NULL,
object_name             IN VARCHAR2,
column_name             IN VARCHAR2 := NULL,
policy_name             IN VARCHAR2,
function_type           IN BINARY_INTEGER := NULL,
expression              IN VARCHAR2,
enable                  IN BOOLEAN := TRUE);

In this specification:

- object_schema, object_name, column_name, policy_name, expression, enable: See "General Syntax of the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY Procedure".

- function_type: Specifies the functions used to set the type of data redaction. Enter DBMS_REDACT.NONE.
If you omit the function_type parameter, then the default redaction function_type setting is DBMS_REDACT.FULL.

Example: Performing No Redaction

You can use the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY PL/SQL procedure to create a policy that performs no redaction.

Example 10-10 shows how to create a Data Redaction policy that does not redact any of the displayed values.

Example 10-10 No Redacted Data Redaction Values

BEGIN
DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY(
object_schema    => 'mavis',
object_name      => 'cust_info',
column_name      => 'user_name',
policy_name      => 'redact_cust_no_vals',
function_type    => DBMS_REDACT.NONE,
expression       => '1=1');
END;
/

Query and redacted result:

SELECT user_name FROM mavis.cust_info;

USER_NAME
----------
IDA NEAU

Exemption of Users from Oracle Data Redaction Policies

You can exempt users from having Oracle Data Redaction policies applied to the data they access.

To do so, you should grant the users the EXEMPT REDACTION POLICY system privilege. Grant this privilege to trusted users only.

In addition to users who were granted this privilege, user SYS is also exempt from all Data Redaction policies. The person who creates the Data Redaction policy is by default not exempt from it, unless this person is user SYS or has the EXEMPT REDACTION POLICY system privilege.

Note the following:

- Users who have the INSERT privilege on a table can insert values into a redacted column, regardless of whether a Data Redaction policy exists on the table. Data Redaction only affects SQL SELECT statements (that is, queries) issued by a user, and has no effect on any other SQL issued by a user, including INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statements. (See the next bullet for exceptions to this rule.)

- Users cannot perform a CREATE TABLE AS SELECT where any of the columns being selected (source columns) is protected by a Data Redaction policy (and similarly, any DML operation where the source is a redacted column), unless the user was granted the EXEMPT REDACTION POLICY system privilege.

- The EXEMPT REDACTION POLICY system privilege is included in the DBA role, but this privilege must be granted explicitly to users because it is not included in the WITH ADMIN OPTION for DBA role grants. Users who were granted the DBA role are exempt from redaction policies because the DBA role contains the EXP_FULL_DATABASE role, which is granted the EXEMPT REDACTION POLICY system privilege.

See Also:

- "Restriction of Administrative Access to Oracle Data Redaction Policies"

- "Oracle Data Pump Security Model for Oracle Data Redaction" for information about how Oracle Data Pump privileges affect the EXEMPT REDACTION POLICY system privilege

Altering an Oracle Data Redaction Policy

You can use the DBMS_REDACT.ALTER_POLICY procedure to modify Oracle Data Redaction policies. In addition to changing current settings, this procedure enables you to add columns to a policy, if you want to redact more than one column in a database table.

Topics:

- About Altering Oracle Data Redaction Policies

- Syntax for the DBMS_REDACT.ALTER_POLICY Procedure

- Parameters Required for DBMS_REDACT.ALTER_POLICY Actions

- Tutorial: Altering an Oracle Data Redaction Policy

About Altering Oracle Data Redaction Policies

To alter a Data Redaction policy, you can use the DBMS_REDACT.ALTER_POLICY procedure.

If the policy is already enabled, then you do not need to disable it first, and after you alter the policy, it remains enabled.

You can find the names of existing Data Redaction policies by querying the POLICY_NAME column of the REDACTION_POLICIES data dictionary view, and information about the columns, functions, and parameters specified in a policy by querying the REDACTION_COLUMNS view. To find the current value for policies that use full data redaction, you can query the REDACTION_VALUES_FOR_TYPE_FULL data dictionary view.

The action parameter specifies the type of modification that you want to perform. At a minimum, you must include the object_name and policy_name parameters when you run this procedure.

Syntax for the DBMS_REDACT.ALTER_POLICY Procedure

The syntax for the DBMS_REDACT.ALTER_POLICY procedure enables you to alter all types of the Data Redaction policies.

The syntax for the DBMS_REDACT.ALTER_POLICY procedure is as follows:

DBMS_REDACT.ALTER_POLICY (
object_schema          IN VARCHAR2 := NULL,
object_name            IN VARCHAR2 := NULL,
policy_name            IN VARCHAR2,
action                 IN BINARY_INTEGER := DBMS_REDACT.ADD_COLUMN,
column_name            IN VARCHAR2 := NULL,
function_type          IN BINARY_INTEGER := DBMS_REDACT.FULL,
function_parameters    IN VARCHAR2 := NULL,
expression             IN VARCHAR2 := NULL,
regexp_pattern         IN VARCHAR2 := NULL,
regexp_replace_string  IN VARCHAR2 := NULL,
regexp_position        IN BINARY_INTEGER := NULL,
regexp_occurrence      IN BINARY_INTEGER := NULL,
regexp_match_parameter IN VARCHAR2 := NULL,
policy_description     IN VARCHAR2 := NULL,
column_description     IN VARCHAR2 := NULL);

In this specification:

- action: Enter one of the following values to define the kind of action to use:

- DBMS_REDACT.MODIFY_COLUMN if you plan to change the column_name value.

- DBMS_REDACT.ADD_COLUMN if you plan to add a new column (in addition to columns that are already protected by the policy) for redaction. This setting is the default for the action parameter.

- DBMS_REDACT.DROP_COLUMN if you want to remove redaction from a column.

- DBMS_REDACT.MODIFY_EXPRESSION if you plan to change the expression value. Each policy can have only one policy expression. In other words, when you modify the policy expression, you are replacing the existing policy expression with a new policy expression.

- DBMS_REDACT.SET_POLICY_DESCRIPTION if you want to change the description of the policy.

- DBMS_REDACT.SET_COLUMN_DESCRIPTION if you want to change the description of the column.

See Also:

- "Parameters Required for DBMS_REDACT.ALTER_POLICY Actions"

- "General Syntax of the DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY Procedure" for information about the remaining parameters

Parameters Required for DBMS_REDACT.ALTER_POLICY Actions

The DBMS_REDACT.ALTER_POLICY procedure provides a set of parameters than enable you to perform various actions, such as adding or modifying a column.

Table 10-5 shows the combinations of these parameters.

Table 10-5 Parameters Required for Various DBMS_REDACT.ALTER_POLICY Actions

Desired Alteration

Parameters to Set

Add or modify a column

- action (DBMS_REDACT.MODIFY_COLUMN)

- column_name

- function_type

- function_parameters (if necessary)

- regexp* (if necessary)

Change the policy expression

- action (DBMS_REDACT.MODIFY_EXPRESSION)

- expression

Change the description of the policy

- action (DBMS_REDACT.SET_POLICY_DESCRIPTION)

- policy_description

Change the description of the column

- action (DBMS_REDACT.SET_COLUMN_DESCRIPTION)

- column_description

Drop a column

- action (DBMS_REDACT.DROP_COLUMN)

- column_name

Tutorial: Altering an Oracle Data Redaction Policy

You can redact multiple columns in a table or view, with each column having its own redaction setting.

The exercise in this section shows how to modify a Data Redaction policy so that multiple columns are redacted. It also shows how to change the expression setting for the policy. To accomplish this, you must run the DBMS_REDACT.ALTER_POLICY procedure in stages.

1. Create the policy.

BEGIN
DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY(
object_schema   => 'hr',
object_name     => 'employees',
column_name     => 'email',
policy_name     => 'hr_employees_pol',
function_type   => DBMS_REDACT.FULL,
expression      => '1=1');
END;
/

At this point, when application users (including HR) query the email column, the email addresses are redacted to show a single space.

CONNECT HR
Enter password: password

SELECT EMAIL FROM HR.EMPLOYEES;

EMAIL
------

2. Alter this policy to redact the hire_date column to show 01-JAN-70.

BEGIN
DBMS_REDACT.ALTER_POLICY(
object_schema       => 'hr',
object_name         => 'employees',
policy_name         => 'hr_employees_pol',
action              => DBMS_REDACT.ADD_COLUMN,
column_name         => 'hire_date',
function_type       => DBMS_REDACT.PARTIAL,
function_parameters => DBMS_REDACT.REDACT_DATE_EPOCH);
END;
/

To redact the hire_date column, you must change the function_type parameter to use partial redaction, and you must include the function_parameters parameter to specify the DBMS_REDACT.REDACT_DATE_EPOCH format. The expression parameter is omitted because for this particular alteration, it does not need to change. The email column is still redacted, so a query shows the following:

SELECT EMAIL, HIRE_DATE FROM HR.EMPLOYEES;

EMAIL   HIRE_DATE
------  ----------
01-JAN-70

3. Change the expression parameter so that user HR is the only user who can see the actual data for the EMAIL and HIRE_DATE columns.

BEGIN
DBMS_REDACT.ALTER_POLICY(
object_schema   => 'hr',
object_name     => 'employees',
policy_name     => 'hr_employees_pol',
action          => DBMS_REDACT.MODIFY_EXPRESSION,
expression      => 'SYS_CONTEXT(''USERENV'',''SESSION_USER'') != ''HR''');
END;
/

To change the expression setting, you set the action parameter to DBMS_REDACT.MODIFY_EXPRESSION, and then enter the new expression in the expression parameter. At this stage, when user HR queries the EMAIL and HIRE_DATE columns, he or she can see the actual data.

SELECT EMAIL, HIRE_DATE FROM HR.EMPLOYEES;

EMAIL   HIRE_DATE
------  ----------
SKING   17-JUN-03
...

4. To drop the policy, enter the following procedure:

BEGIN
DBMS_REDACT.DROP_POLICY (
object_schema  => 'hr',
object_name    => 'employees',
policy_name    => 'hr_employees_pol');
END;
/

Redacting Multiple Columns

You can redact more than one column in a Data Redaction policy.

Topics:

- Adding Columns to a Data Redaction Policy for a Single Table or View

- Example: Redacting Multiple Columns

Adding Columns to a Data Redaction Policy for a Single Table or View

You can redact columns of different data types, using different redaction types, for one table or view.

1. Create the policy for the first column that you want to redact.

2. Use the DBMS_REDACT.ALTER_POLICY procedure to add the next column to the policy.
As necessary, set the action, column_name, function_type, and function_parameters (or the parameters that begin with regexp_) parameters to define the redaction for the new column, but do not change the object_schema, object_name, policy_name, or expression parameters. Each redacted column continues to have the same redaction parameters that were used to create it.

Example: Redacting Multiple Columns

You can use the DBMS_REDACT.ALTER_POLICY PL/SQL procedure to redact multiple columns.

Example 10-11 shows how to add a column to an existing Data Redaction policy. In this example, the action parameter specifies that a new column must be added, using DBMS_REDACT.ADD_COLUMN. The name of the new column, card_num, is set by the column_name parameter.

Example 10-11 Adding a Column to a Data Redaction Policy

BEGIN
DBMS_REDACT.ALTER_POLICY(
object_schema       => 'mavis',
object_name         => 'cust_info',
policy_name         => 'redact_cust_user_ids',
action              => DBMS_REDACT.ADD_COLUMN,
column_name         => 'card_num',
function_type       => DBMS_REDACT.FULL,
function_parameters => '',
expression          => 'SYS_CONTEXT(''SYS_SESSION_ROLES'',''ADM'') = ''TRUE''');
END;
/

Disabling and Enabling an Oracle Data Redaction Policy

After you have created an Oracle Data Redaction policy, you can disable it and then reenable it as necessary.

Topics:

- Disabling an Oracle Data Redaction Policy

- Enabling an Oracle Data Redaction Policy

Disabling an Oracle Data Redaction Policy

You can disable an Oracle Data Redaction policy by using the DBMS_REDACT.DISABLE_POLICY procedure.

You can find the names of existing Data Redaction policies and whether they are enabled by querying the POLICY_NAME and ENABLE columns of the REDACTION_POLICIES view. However, as long as the policy still exists, you cannot create another policy for that table or view, even if the original policy is disabled. In other words, if you want to create a different policy on the same table column, then you must drop the first policy before you can create and use the new policy.

- To disable a Data Redaction policy, run the DBMS_REDACT.DISABLE_POLICY procedure, using the following syntax:

DBMS_REDACT.DISABLE_POLICY (
object_schema       IN VARCHAR2 DEFAULT NULL,
object_name         IN VARCHAR2,
policy_name         IN VARCHAR2);

In this specification:

- object_schema: Specifies the schema of the object on which the Data Redaction policy will be applied. If you omit this setting (or enter NULL), then Oracle Database uses the name of the current schema.

- object_name: Specifies the name of the table or view to be used for the Data Redaction policy.

- policy_name: Specifies the name of the policy to be disabled.

Example 10-12 shows how to disable a Data Redaction policy.

Example 10-12 Disabling a Data Redaction Policy

BEGIN
DBMS_REDACT.DISABLE_POLICY (
object_schema  => 'mavis',
object_name    => 'cust_info',
policy_name    => 'redact_cust_user_ids');
END;
/

Enabling an Oracle Data Redaction Policy

You can run the DBMS_REDACT.ENABLE_POLICY procedure to enable an Oracle Data Redaction policy.

Immediately after you create a new policy, you do not need to enable it; the creation process handles that for you. To find the names of existing Data Redaction policies and whether they are enabled, you can query the POLICY_NAME and ENABLE columns of the REDACTION_POLICIES view. After you run the procedure to enable the policy, the enablement takes effect immediately.

- To enable a Data Redaction policy, run the DBMS_REDACT.ENABLE_POLICY procedure, using the following syntax.

DBMS_REDACT.ENABLE_POLICY (
object_schema       IN VARCHAR2 DEFAULT NULL,
object_name         IN VARCHAR2,
policy_name         IN VARCHAR2);

In this specification:

- object_schema: Specifies the schema of the object on which the Data Redaction policy will be applied. If you omit this setting (or enter NULL), then Oracle Database uses the name of the current schema.

- object_name: Specifies the name of the table or view to be used for the Data Redaction policy.

- policy_name: Specifies the name of the policy to be enabled.

Example 10-13 shows how to enable a Data Redaction policy.

Example 10-13 Enabling a Data Redaction Policy

BEGIN
DBMS_REDACT.ENABLE_POLICY (
object_schema  => 'mavis',
object_name    => 'cust_info',
policy_name    => 'redact_cust_user_ids');
END;
/

Dropping an Oracle Data Redaction Policy

You can drop an Oracle Data Redaction policy by running the DBMS_REDACT.DROP_POLICY procedure.

You can drop an Oracle Data Redaction policy whether it is enabled or disabled. You can find the names of existing Data Redaction policies, by querying the POLICY_NAME column of the REDACTION_POLICIES view. When you drop a table or view that is associated with an Oracle Data Redaction policy, the policy is automatically dropped. As a best practice, drop the policy first, and then drop the table or view afterward. See "Dropped Oracle Data Redaction Policies When the Recycle Bin Is Enabled" for more information.

- To drop a Data Redaction policy, run the DBMS_REDACT.DROP_POLICY procedure.
Use the following syntax:

DBMS_REDACT.DROP_POLICY (
object_schema       IN VARCHAR2 DEFAULT NULL,
object_name         IN VARCHAR2,
policy_name         IN VARCHAR2);

In this specification:

- object_schema: Specifies the schema of the object to which the Data Redaction policy applies. If you omit this setting (or enter NULL), then Oracle Database uses the name of the current schema.

- object_name: Specifies the name of the table or view to be used for the Data Redaction policy.

- policy_name: Specifies the name of the policy to be dropped.

After you run the DBMS_REDACT.DROP_POLICY procedure, the drop takes effect immediately.

Example 10-14 shows how to drop a Data Redaction policy.

Example 10-14 Dropping a Data Redaction Policy

BEGIN
DBMS_REDACT.DROP_POLICY (
object_schema  => 'mavis',
object_name    => 'cust_info',
policy_name    => 'redact_cust_user_ids');
END;
/

Tutorial: How Oracle Data Redaction Affects Tables and Views

Oracle Data Redaction policies apply to their target table or view and to any views that are created on this target, including materialized views.

See "Oracle Data Redaction Policies on Materialized Views" for restrictions on creating Data Redaction policies on materialized views.

If you create a view chain (that is, a view based on another view), then the Data Redaction policy also applies throughout this view chain. The policies remain in effect all of the way up through this view chain, but if another policy is created for one of these views, then for the columns affected in the subsequent views, this new policy takes precedence.

To understand how this concept works, follow these steps:

1. Create and populate the following table:

CREATE TABLE TABLE1 (TC1 VARCHAR2(20), TN1 NUMBER(10));

INSERT INTO TABLE1 VALUES ('5111-1111-1111-1118', 987654329);

2. Create the following views, which will constitute the view chain for table table1:

CREATE VIEW view1 (vc1, vn1) AS SELECT tc1, tn1 FROM table1;
CREATE VIEW view2 (vc2, vn2) AS SELECT vc1, vn1 FROM view1;
CREATE VIEW view3 (vc3, vn3) AS SELECT vc2, vn2 FROM view2;

3. Create the following policy on the table1 table, which changes the display of the tc1 column to random values.

BEGIN
DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY(
object_schema    => 'NULL',
object_name      => 'table1',
column_name      => 'tc1',
policy_name      => 't1pol',
function_type    => DBMS_REDACT.RANDOM,
expression       => '1=1');
END;
/

4. Query table1.tc1, view1.vc1, view2.vc2, and view3.vc3, and you will see that they all produce random output, based on the t1pol Data Redaction policy.
For example:

SELECT vc3 FROM view3;

VC3
-----------------------
M,v]3(z+U4~e;0#3]<'

5. Create the following policy on view2, which changes the output of column vc2 to display no output at all (that is, a blank space).

BEGIN
DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY(
object_schema    => 'NULL',
object_name      => 'view2',
column_name      => 'vc2',
policy_name      => 'v2pol',
function_type    => DBMS_REDACT.FULL,
expression       => '1=1');
END;
/

6. Query views view2 and view3.

SELECT vc2 FROM view2;
SELECT vc3 FROM view3;

Both queries produce the same output (a blank space), which illustrates how for these views, policy v2pol overrides the base table policy, t1pol.

7. Query table table1 and view view1.

SELECT tc1 FROM table1;
SELECT vc1 FROM view1;

Because table1 and view1 are lower in the chain, they are not affected by policy v2pol1. The output for both remains as random values.

8. Create the following policy on view1, which redacts the first 5 digits of the numeric values in column vn1 to 9.

BEGIN
DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY(
object_schema       => 'NULL',
object_name         => 'view1',
column_name         => 'vn1',
policy_name         => 'v1pol',
function_type       => DBMS_REDACT.PARTIAL,
function_parameters => '9,1,5',
expression          => '1=1');
END;
/

9. Query view view1:

SELECT vc1, vn1 FROM view1;

VC1                                   VN1
------------------------------------- ----------------
:'F6`B<dB/N>hJDlJ7V                   999994329

Here, view view1 is using two policies. Policy t1pol (on table table1) continues to redact column vc1, and policy v1pol (on view view1) redacts column vn1.

10. Query view view2:

SELECT vc2, vn2 FROM view2;

VC2                                   VN2
------------------------------------- ----------------
999994329

View view2 also uses two policies: the blank space for its column vc2 is generated by policy v2pol, and the partial numeric redaction for vn2 comes from policy v1pol for view view1.

11. Query view view3:

SELECT vc3, vn3 FROM view3;

VC3                                   VN3
------------------------------------- ----------------
999994329

Because view view3 has no direct policies, it uses the policy settings from both view1 and view2. Hence, the output is the same as the output for view2.

12. Disable the policy.
If you disable a policy, then the output for all of the views along the view chain that are affected by the policy is also changed.

For example, disable the policy t1pol, which was created for table table1:

EXEC DBMS_REDACT.DISABLE_POLICY (NULL, 'TABLE1', 'T1POL');

Now query view1 again:

SELECT vc1, vn1 FROM view1;

VC1                                   VN1
------------------------------------- ----------------
5111-1111-1111-1118                   999994329

Column vc1 shows the values from the base table table1. Column vn1 still shows the redacted values from policy v2pol.

13. To remove the components of this exercise:

EXEC DBMS_REDACT.DROP_POLICY (NULL, 'table1', 't1pol');
EXEC DBMS_REDACT.DROP_POLICY (NULL, 'view1', 'v1pol');
EXEC DBMS_REDACT.DROP_POLICY (NULL, 'view2', 'v2pol');
DROP TABLE table1;
DROP VIEW view1;
DROP VIEW view2;
DROP VIEW view3;

Figure 10-1 shows how these policies affect the chain of views described in the previous example.

Figure 10-1 How Oracle Data Redaction Policies Work in a Chain of Views

See Also:

"Dropped Oracle Data Redaction Policies When the Recycle Bin Is Enabled" for information about how Oracle Data Redaction policies are affected when you drop their associated tables or views when the recycle bin is enabled

Tutorial: SQL Expressions to Build Reports with Redacted Values

You can use SQL expressions to build reports that are based on columns that have Oracle Data Redaction policies defined on them.

The values used in the SQL expression will be redacted. This redaction occurs in such a way that the redaction takes place before the SQL expression is evaluated: the result value that is displayed in the report is the end result of the evaluated SQL expression over the redacted values, rather than the redacted result of the SQL expression as a whole.

1. Create the following Data Redaction policy for the HR.EMPLOYEES table.
This policy will replace the first 4 digits of the value from the SALARY column with the number 9 and the first digit of the value from the COMMISSION_PCT column with a 9.

BEGIN
DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY(
object_schema          => 'HR',
object_name            => 'EMPLOYEES',
column_name            => 'SALARY',
column_description     => 'emp_sal_comm shows employee salary and commission',
policy_name            => 'redact_emp_sal_comm',
policy_description     => 'Partially redacts the emp_sal_comm column',
function_type          => DBMS_REDACT.PARTIAL,
function_parameters    => '9,1,4',
expression             => '1=1');
END;
/
BEGIN
DBMS_REDACT.ALTER_POLICY(
object_schema          => 'HR',
object_name            => 'EMPLOYEES',
policy_name            => 'redact_emp_sal_comm',
action                 => DBMS_REDACT.ADD_COLUMN,
column_name            => 'COMMISSION_PCT',
function_type          => DBMS_REDACT.PARTIAL,
function_parameters    => '9,1,1',
expression             => '1=1');
END;
/

2. Log in to the HR schema and then run the following report.
This report will use the SQL expression (SALARY + COMMISSION_PCT) to combine the employees' salaries and commissions.

SELECT (SALARY + COMMISSION_PCT) total_emp_compensation
FROM EMPLOYEES
WHERE DEPARTMENT_ID = 80;

TOTAL_EMP_COMPENSATION
----------------------
9999.9
9999.95
99990.95
...

3. Use SQL expressions for the report, including concatenation.
For example:

SELECT 'Employee ID '          || EMPLOYEE_ID ||
' has a salary of '     || SALARY ||
' and a commission of ' || COMMISSION_PCT || '.' detailed_emp_compensation
FROM EMPLOYEES
WHERE DEPARTMENT_ID = 80
ORDER BY EMPLOYEE_ID;

DETAILED_EMP_COMPENSATION
-------------------------------------------------------------
Employee ID 150 has a salary of 99990 and a commission of .9.
Employee ID 151 has a salary of 9999 and a commission of .95.
Employee ID 152 has a salary of 9999 and a commission of .95.
...

4. Run the following statement to drop the redact_emp_sal_comm Data Redaction policy:

BEGIN
DBMS_REDACT.DROP_POLICY (
object_schema => 'HR',
object_name   => 'EMPLOYEES',
policy_name   => 'redact_emp_sal_comm');
END;
/

Oracle Data Redaction Policy Data Dictionary Views

Oracle Database provides a set of data dictionary views that provide information about Data Redaction policies. Before you can query these views, you must be granted the SELECT_CATALOG_ROLE role.

Table 10-6 lists the Data Redaction data dictionary views.

Table 10-6 Data Redaction Views

View

Description

REDACTION_COLUMNS

Describes all of the redacted columns in the database, giving the owner of the table or view within which the column resides, the object name, the column name, the type of redaction function, the parameters to the redaction function (if any), and a description of the redaction policy

REDACTION_POLICIES

Describes all of the data redaction policies in the database. It includes information about the object owner, object name, policy name, policy expression, whether the policy is enabled, and a description of the Data Redaction policy.

REDACTION_VALUES_FOR_TYPE_FULL

Shows the current redaction values for Data Redaction policies that use full redaction

11 Using Oracle Data Redaction in Oracle Enterprise Manager

You can create and manage Oracle Data Redaction policies and formats by using Oracle Enterprise Manager Cloud Control (Cloud Control).

Topics:

- About Using Oracle Data Redaction in Oracle Enterprise Manager

- Oracle Data Redaction Workflow

- Management of Sensitive Column Types in Enterprise Manager

- Managing Oracle Data Redaction Formats Using Enterprise Manager

- Managing Oracle Data Redaction Policies Using Enterprise Manager

About Using Oracle Data Redaction in Oracle Enterprise Manager

Oracle Enterprise Manager Cloud Control provides an unified user interface for creating and managing Oracle Data Redaction policies.

Starting with the Oracle Enterprise Manager 12c Database plug-in 12.1.0.7, you can do the following:

- Create and manage custom Oracle Data Redaction formats, which were previously known as Data Redaction shortcuts. (This functionality is not available from the command line.)

- Create and manage sensitive column types directly from the Oracle Data Redaction pages. While you create a Data Redaction policy, Cloud Control uses sensitive column types to obtain the Oracle Data Redaction formats that are relevant to the column that you are redacting.

Note:

You can redact data in Oracle Database Enterprise Edition 11.2.0.4 or later by using Oracle Enterprise Manager, starting with Oracle Enterprise Manager 12c. However, before you can create custom redaction formats and sensitive column types, you must deploy the Enterprise Manager for Oracle Database plug-in 12.1.0.7 or higher.

For information about how to deploy a plug-in, see Enterprise Manager Cloud Control Administrator's Guide.

Oracle Data Redaction Workflow

The following figure depicts the steps you must follow to redact the data of one or more columns of a particular database.

1. (Optional) If you want to map the database columns (that contain the data that you want to redact) to new sensitive column types, then create the required sensitive column types as described in Management of Sensitive Column Types in Enterprise Manager.

2. (Optional) If you want to redact the data (present in a particular database column) using a custom redaction format, then create the required redaction format as described in Creating a Custom Oracle Data Redaction Format.

3. Create an Oracle Data Redaction policy for the required database, as described in Creating an Oracle Data Redaction Policy Using Enterprise Manager.

Note:

When you create an Oracle Data Redaction policy, it is enabled by default. For information on how to disable an enabled redaction policy, see Enabling or Disabling an Oracle Data Redaction Policy Using Enterprise Manager.

Management of Sensitive Column Types in Enterprise Manager

A sensitive column type categorizes sensitive information contained in a database table column into a sensitive information type, such as Social Security numbers or credit card numbers.

Sensitive column types use a combination of the column name, column comments, and the data pattern defined using a regular expression to tag a column to a particular sensitive information type.

While you create Oracle Data Redaction policies, redaction formats are filtered on the basis of the chosen sensitive column type, thus saving time and effort. For example, if the database table column that you want to redact contains U.S. Social Security numbers, and you select the SOCIAL_SECURITY_NUMBER sensitive column type for the column while adding it to the Oracle Data Redaction policy, the default redaction formats that you can use to redact the column data are filtered, and only the relevant redaction formats are displayed.

Figure 11-1 illustrates the filtering of Oracle Data Redaction formats based on sensitive column types.

Figure 11-1 Oracle Data Redaction Formats Filtered on the Basis of Sensitive Column Types

Note:

This functionality is available only if you have the Enterprise Manager for Oracle Database plug-in 12.1.0.7 or later deployed in your system.

For information on how to verify the plug-ins deployed in your environment, see Enterprise Manager Cloud Control Administrator's Guide..

As part of the Application Data Modelling feature, Oracle provides a number of default sensitive column types that a database column can be mapped to.

Figure 11-2 displays some of the default sensitive column types.

Figure 11-2 Default Sensitive Column Types

If none of the default sensitive column types are suitable for the database column that contains the data that you want to redact, you can create a new sensitive column type, or create a sensitive column type that is based on an existing sensitive column type, as described in Oracle Database Testing Guide..

Managing Oracle Data Redaction Formats Using Enterprise Manager

Oracle Data Redaction provides several redaction formats (previously known as Oracle Data Redaction templates) that you can use directly within a redaction policy to redact data, such as US Social Security numbers, telephone numbers, American Express card numbers, and so on.

Topics:

- About Managing Oracle Data Redaction Formats Using Enterprise Manager

- Creating a Custom Oracle Data Redaction Format

- Editing a Custom Oracle Data Redaction Format

- Viewing Oracle Data Redaction Formats

- Deleting a Custom Oracle Data Redaction Format

About Managing Oracle Data Redaction Formats Using Enterprise Manager

As an example of the Oracle Data Redaction formats, a set of Social Security number formats enable you to quickly designate ways to redact Social Security numbers, such as redacting the first five numbers of the Social Security number.

Oracle Database provides several default Oracle Data Redaction formats.

Figure 11-3 displays the default Oracle Data Redaction formats.

Figure 11-3 Default Oracle Data Redaction Formats

Each default Oracle Data Redaction format consists of a specific redaction function that determines the redacted output when the redaction format is used in an Oracle Data Redaction policy. For example, the Credit Card Numbers - NUMBER default redaction format replaces the first twelve digits of the column data with the digit 0, when it is used in an Oracle Data Redaction policy. That is, if the column data is 5555555555554444, the redacted output will be 0000000000004444.

If you have deployed the Enterprise Manager for Oracle Database plug-in 12.1.0.7 or higher on your system, then you can also create and save custom redaction formats, which you can then use in your redaction policies.

Creating a Custom Oracle Data Redaction Format

You can create and save a custom Oracle Data Redaction format using Enterprise Manager Cloud Control (Cloud Control).

1. Log into Oracle Enterprise Manager Cloud Control as either user SYSTEM or SYSMAN.
The URL is as follows:

https://host:port/em

2. From the Targets menu, select Databases.

3. Select Search List, then click the name of a database target.

4. On the home page of the database target, from the Security menu, select Data Redaction.

5. Log in to the database, if you are prompted to do so.
Ensure that you log in to the database as a user that has the EXECUTE privilege on the DBMS_REDACT PL/SQL package.

6. Select the Formats tab and then click Create.
If you want to create a custom redaction format that is based on, or is similar to an existing redaction format, then click Create Like.

If you select Create, then the following dialog box appears:

7. Provide a name and a description for the redaction format that you want to create.
If you want to map the redaction format to a particular sensitive column type (such that the created redaction format can be used to redact the data of a column that is associated with the sensitive column type), then select a value for Sensitive Column Type.

Select the function that the format should use to redact the column data. For Redaction Function, select FULL if the format should redact the entire column data, PARTIAL if the format should redact only a part of the column data, REGEX if the format should redact data based on a regular expression, RANDOM if the format should redact data in a random manner, using randomly generated values, or NONE if the format will be used to only test the definition of a redaction policy, and not redact any column data. If you select PARTIAL, then ensure that you provide the function attributes, as well as the data type that you want to use the redaction format for. If you select REGEX, ensure that you provide the function attributes.

For more information about the redaction functions you can use, and the patterns you can specify with each redaction function, see Oracle Data Redaction Features and Capabilities.

8. Click OK to create and save the custom redaction format.
This format can now be used to create a redaction policy. For information about how to create a redaction policy, see Creating an Oracle Data Redaction Policy Using Enterprise Manager.

Editing a Custom Oracle Data Redaction Format

You can only edit custom Oracle Data Redaction formats using Cloud Control. You cannot edit the default redaction formats that Oracle provides.

1. Log into Oracle Enterprise Manager Cloud Control as either user SYSTEM or SYSMAN.
The URL is as follows:

https://host:port/em

2. From the Targets menu, select Databases.

3. Select Search List, then click the name of a database target.

4. On the home page of the database target, from the Security menu, select Data Redaction.

5. Log in to the database, if you are prompted to do so.
Ensure that you log in to the database as a user that has the EXECUTE privilege on the DBMS_REDACT PL/SQL package.

6. Select the Formats tab and then click Create.

7. Select the custom redaction format that you want to edit, then click Edit.
A dialog box similar to the following appears:

8. (Optional) Choose to edit the format description, sensitive column type, redaction function, and the redaction function attributes.

9. Click OK to save the edited format.

Viewing Oracle Data Redaction Formats

You can view the details of the Oracle-supplied and custom Oracle Data Redaction formats by using Enterprise Manager Cloud Control (Cloud Control).

1. Log into Oracle Enterprise Manager Cloud Control as either user SYSTEM or SYSMAN.
The URL is as follows:

https://host:port/em

2. From the Targets menu, select Databases.

3. Select Search List, then click the name of a database target.

4. On the home page of the database target, from the Security menu, select Data Redaction.

5. Log in to the database, if you are prompted to do so.
Ensure that you log in to the database as a user that has the EXECUTE privilege on the DBMS_REDACT PL/SQL package.

6. Select the Formats tab.

7. Select the required redaction format, then click View.
The Data Redaction Formats page appears, similar to the following page.

Deleting a Custom Oracle Data Redaction Format

You can delete a custom Oracle Data Redaction format using Enterprise Manager Cloud Control (Cloud Control).

You can only delete custom Oracle Data Redaction formats, and not the redaction formats that are provided by Oracle.

1. Log into Oracle Enterprise Manager Cloud Control as either user SYSTEM or SYSMAN.
The URL is as follows:

https://host:port/em

2. From the Targets menu, select Databases.

3. Select Search List, then click the name of a database target.

4. On the home page of the database target, from the Security menu, select Data Redaction.

5. Log in to the database, if you are prompted to do so.
Ensure that you log in to the database as a user that has the EXECUTE privilege on the DBMS_REDACT PL/SQL package.

6. Select the Formats tab.

7. Select the custom redaction format that you want to delete, and then click Delete.

8. In the Confirmation dialog box, click Yes or No.

Managing Oracle Data Redaction Policies Using Enterprise Manager

You can create, edit, view, and delete Oracle Data Redaction policies in Enterprise Manager Cloud Control (Cloud Control).

Topics:

- Creating an Oracle Data Redaction Policy Using Enterprise Manager

- Editing an Oracle Data Redaction Policy Using Enterprise Manager

- Viewing the Details of an Oracle Data Redaction Policy Using Enterprise Manager

- Enabling or Disabling an Oracle Data Redaction Policy Using Enterprise Manager

- Deleting an Oracle Data Redaction Policy Using Enterprise Manager

About Managing Oracle Data Redaction Policies Using Enterprise Manager

The Data Redaction page enables you to manage Oracle Data Redaction policies.

To redact the data present in a particular database table or view column, you must create an Oracle Data Redaction policy. Data is redacted using a redaction format that is specified by the Oracle Data Redaction policy. To redact data, you can use any of the Oracle-supplied redaction formats, or create and use a custom redaction format. If the table or view column that contains the data that you want to redact is mapped to a sensitive column type, Oracle uses the mapping to recommend suitable redaction formats for the data. Thus, Oracle Data Redaction policies encapsulate database schemas, database table and view columns, sensitive column types, and Oracle Data Redaction formats.

Figure 11-4 shows the Data Redaction page, which enables you to create and manage Oracle Data Redaction policies in Cloud Control.

Figure 11-4 Oracle Data Redaction Policies Page

Creating an Oracle Data Redaction Policy Using Enterprise Manager

You can create an Oracle Data Redaction policy using Enterprise Manager Cloud Control (Cloud Control).

1. Log into Oracle Enterprise Manager Cloud Control as either user SYSTEM or SYSMAN.
The URL is as follows:

https://host:port/em

2. From the Targets menu, select Databases.

3. Select Search List, then click the name of a database target for which you want to create an Oracle Data Redaction policy.

4. On the home page of the database target, from the Security menu, select Data Redaction.

5. Log in to the database, if you are prompted to do so.
Ensure that you log in to the database as a user that has the EXECUTE privilege on the DBMS_REDACT PL/SQL package.

6. In the Policies section of the Policies tab, select Create.

7. On the Create Data Redaction Policy page, enter the following information:

- Schema: Enter (or search for) the name of the schema that contains the data you want to redact.

- Table/View: Enter (or search for) the table or field that contains the column you want to redact.

- Policy Name: Enter a for the policy, such as emp_wages_pol.

- Policy Expression: Enter a policy expression. The default is 1=1, which means that the policy always will be enforced. If you are not familiar with the components of a policy expression, click the pencil icon beside the Policy Expression field to use Policy Expression Builder. Select Policy is in effect when, select the required conditions, then click Add. Click Edit if you want to edit the policy expression manually. After building the required policy expression, click OK. The Policy Expression Builder appears as follows:

8. In the Object Columns section, click Add to add a table or view column to the redaction policy.
The following dialog box appears:

The redaction policy is applied only on the table or view columns that are added to it.

9. From the Column menu, select the table or view column to which you want to apply the redaction policy.
To the right of the Column menu is an icon that you can click to view the contents of the selected column.

For example:

If the column contains sensitive data and has been mapped to a sensitive column type, then from the Sensitive Column Type menu, select the sensitive column type that it has been mapped to. If the search pattern in the Sensitive Column Type menu matches, then the sensitive column type is selected by default. For example, for a column listing credit card numbers, if there is a match, then the menu will list Undefined and CREDIT_CARD_TYPE. If there is no sensitive column type created, then the default Sensitive Column Type menu listing is only Undefined.

10. From the Redaction Format menu, select the redaction format that you want to use.
The drop-down list is populated with the Oracle Database-supplied redaction formats, as well as the custom redaction formats that you have created and saved. For information about how to create and save a redaction format, see Creating a Custom Oracle Data Redaction Format.
If you do not want to use a pre-defined redaction format (that is, an Oracle-Database supplied redaction format, or a custom redaction format that you have created), and instead want to specify the redaction details while creating the redaction policy, select CUSTOM for Redaction Format.

The Add dialog box adjusts to accommodate the type of redaction format and function that you select. For example, if you select the CUSTOM redaction format and the REGEX redaction function, then the Function Attributes region appears in the dialog box.

11. From the Redaction Function menu, select the function that you want to use to redact the column data.
Select FULL if you want to redact the entire column data, PARTIAL if you want to redact only a part of the column data, REGEX if you want to redact the column data based on a regular expression, RANDOM if you want to redact the column data in a random manner, using randomly generated values, or NONE if you only want to test the definition of the redaction policy, and not redact any column data. Note that all the redaction functions may not be applicable for a particular redaction format. The drop-down list displays only the redaction functions that are applicable for the selected redaction format.

If you selected CUSTOM for Redaction Format in the previous step, and PARTIAL or REGEX for Redaction Function, ensure that you specify the function attributes.

See Oracle Data Redaction Features and Capabilitiesfor more information and examples of the available redaction formats.

12. Click OK.

13. Repeat these steps starting with Step 8 for all the columns that you want to add to the redaction policy.

14. On the Create Data Redaction Policy page, click OK to create the data redaction policy.
The new policy appears, similar to the following image:

Note:

When you create an Oracle Data Redaction policy, it is enabled by default. For information on how to disable an enabled redaction policy, see Enabling or Disabling an Oracle Data Redaction Policy Using Enterprise Manager.

Editing an Oracle Data Redaction Policy Using Enterprise Manager

You can edit an Oracle Data Redaction policy using Enterprise Manager Cloud Control (Cloud Control).

1. Log into Oracle Enterprise Manager Cloud Control as either user SYSTEM or SYSMAN.
The URL is as follows:

https://host:port/em

2. From the Targets menu, select Databases.

3. Select Search List, then search for and click the name of the database target for which the Oracle Data Redaction policy that you want to edit was created.

4. On the home page of the database target, from the Security menu, select Data Redaction.

5. Log in to the database, if you are prompted to do so.
Ensure that you log in to the database as a user that has the EXECUTE privilege on the DBMS_REDACT PL/SQL package.

6. In the Policies section of the Policies tab, select the redaction policy that you want to edit, then click Edit..

7. On the Edit Data Redaction Policy page, choose to edit the policy expression, add new columns to the redaction policy, modify the redaction details of a column that is a part of the policy, or delete a column from the redaction policy.
To add a new column to the redaction policy, in the Object Columns section, click Add, select the table or view column that you want to add, then specify the redaction details. To modify the redaction details of a column that is a part of the policy, select the column, click Modify, then edit the redaction details. To delete a column from the redaction policy, select the column, then click Delete.

For information on how to specify or edit the policy expression, see Step 6 described in Creating an Oracle Data Redaction Policy Using Enterprise Manager. For information about how to specify or edit the redaction details of a column, see Step 7.

8. On the Edit Data Redaction Policy page, after editing the required fields, click OK to save and enable the edited redaction policy.

Viewing the Details of an Oracle Data Redaction Policy Using Enterprise Manager

An Oracle Data Redaction policy is executed at run time only if it is enabled. When you create an Oracle Data Redaction policy, it is enabled by default.

You can disable an enabled redaction policy, or enable a disabled redaction policy using Enterprise Manager Cloud Control (Cloud Control).

1. Log into Oracle Enterprise Manager Cloud Control as either user SYSTEM or SYSMAN.
The URL is as follows:

https://host:port/em

2. From the Targets menu, select Databases.

3. Select Search List, then search for and click the name of the database target for which the Oracle Data Redaction policy that you want to view was created.

4. On the home page of the database target, from the Security menu, select Data Redaction.

5. Log in to the database, if you are prompted to do so.

6. In the Policies section of the Policies tab, select the required redaction policy, then click View.

Enabling or Disabling an Oracle Data Redaction Policy Using Enterprise Manager

An Oracle Data Redaction policy is executed at run time only if it is enabled. When you create an Oracle Data Redaction policy, it is enabled by default.

You can disable an enabled redaction policy, or enable a disabled redaction policy using Enterprise Manager Cloud Control (Cloud Control).

1. Log into Oracle Enterprise Manager Cloud Control as either user SYSTEM or SYSMAN.
The URL is as follows:

https://host:port/em

2. From the Targets menu, select Databases.

3. Select Search List, then search for and click the name of the database target for which the Oracle Data Redaction policy that you want to enable or disable was created.

4. On the home page of the database target, from the Security menu, select Data Redaction.

5. Log in to the database, if you are prompted to do so.
Ensure that you log in to the database as a user that has the EXECUTE privilege on the DBMS_REDACT PL/SQL package.

6. In the Policies section of the Policies tab, select the redaction policy that you want to enable or disable, and then click Enable or Disable.

7. In the Confirmation dialog box, click Yes or No.

Deleting an Oracle Data Redaction Policy Using Enterprise Manager

You can delete an Oracle Data Redaction policy using Enterprise Manager Cloud Control (Cloud Control).

1. Log into Oracle Enterprise Manager Cloud Control as either user SYSTEM or SYSMAN.
The URL is as follows:

https://host:port/em

2. From the Targets menu, select Databases.

3. Select Search List, then search for and click the name of the database target for which the Oracle Data Redaction policy that you want to delete was created.

4. On the home page of the database target, from the Security menu, select Data Redaction.

5. Log in to the database, if you are prompted to do so.
Ensure that you log in to the database as a user that has the EXECUTE privilege on the DBMS_REDACT PL/SQL package.

6. In the Policies section of the Policies tab, select the redaction policy that you want to delete, and then click Delete.

7. In the Confirmation dialog box, click Yes or No.

12 Oracle Data Redaction Use with Oracle Database Features

You can use Oracle Data Redaction with other Oracle features and products, such as Oracle Virtual Private Database or Oracle Enterprise Manager Data Masking and Subsetting Pack.

Topics:

- Oracle Data Redaction and DML and DDL Operations

- Oracle Data Redaction and Nested Functions_ Inline Views_ and the WHERE Clause

- Oracle Data Redaction and Aggregate Functions

- Oracle Data Redaction and Object Types

- Oracle Data Redaction and XML Generation

- Oracle Data Redaction and Editions

- Oracle Data Redaction in a Multitenant Environment

- Oracle Data Redaction and Oracle Virtual Private Database

- Oracle Data Redaction and Oracle Database Real Application Security

- Oracle Data Redaction and Oracle Database Vault

- Oracle Data Redaction and Oracle Data Pump

- Oracle Data Redaction and Data Masking and Subsetting Pack

Oracle Data Redaction and DML and DDL Operations

Although you will use Oracle Data Redaction primarily for redacting the displayed results of application queries, you should understand of how it affects DML and DDL operations, especially if you have users who issue ad-hoc SQL against tables with redacted columns.

Note the following:

- Oracle Data Redaction treats the RETURNING INTO clause of a DML statement as a query, even though the result is not displayed. The result that is sent to the buffer is what would have been displayed had the RETURNING INTO clause been run as an ordinary SQL query, rather than as part of a DML statement. If your application performs further processing on the buffer that contains the RETURNING INTO value, then consider changing the application because it may not expect to find a redacted value in the buffer.

- If a redacted column appears as the source in a DML or DDL operation, then Oracle Data Redaction considers this as an attempt to circumvent the policy and prevents it with an ORA-28081: Insufficient privileges - the command references a redacted object error unless you have the EXEMPT REDACTION POLICY system privilege. Internally, Oracle Data Pump issues these kinds of operations, so you may also need to grant the EXEMPT REDACTION POLICY system privilege to a user if they need to perform schema-level exports of tables that have redacted columns.

Oracle Data Redaction and Nested Functions, Inline Views, and the WHERE Clause

You can use Oracle Data Redaction with nested functions, inline views, and the WHERE clause in SELECT statements.

Oracle Data Redaction policies work as follows:

- Nested functions are redacted innermost. For example, in SELECT SUM(AVG(TO_NUMBER(((X))) FROM HR.EMPLOYEES WHERE ..., the TO_NUMBER function is redacted first, followed by AVG, and then last the SUM function.

- Inline views are redacted outermost. For example, in SELECT XYZ … AS SELECT A… AS SELECT B… AS SELECT C…, SELECT XYZ is redacted first, followed by AS SELECT A, then AS SELECT B, and so on. AS SELECT C is redacted last.

- The WHERE clause is never redacted. Data Redaction redacts only data in the column SELECT list.

Oracle Data Redaction and Aggregate Functions

Because Oracle Data Redaction dynamically modifies the value of each row in a column, certain SQL queries that use aggregate functions cannot take full advantage of database optimizations that presume the row values to be static.

In the case of SQL queries that call aggregate functions, it may be possible to notice performance overhead due to redaction.

Oracle Data Redaction and Object Types

An object type is a user-defined type that make it possible to model real-world entities such as customer accounts and purchase orders as objects in a database.

You cannot redact object types. This is because Database Redaction cannot handle all of the possible ways that object types can be configured, because they are user defined. You can find the type that an object uses by querying the OBJECT_NAME and OBJECT_TYPE columns of the ALL_OBJECTS data dictionary view.

Oracle Data Redaction and XML Generation

You cannot use XML generation functions on columns that have Oracle Data Redaction policies defined on them.

Oracle XML DB Developer's Guide describes the kinds of SQL functions to which this restriction applies. This restriction applies irrespective of whether the Oracle Data Redaction policy has been enabled or disabled, or is active for the querying user.

Oracle Data Redaction and Editions

You cannot redact editioned views.

In addition to not being able to redact editioned views, you cannot use a redacted column in the definition of any editioned view. You can find information about editions by querying the DBA_EDITIONS data dictionary view.

Oracle Data Redaction in a Multitenant Environment

In a multitenant environment, Oracle Data Redaction policies apply only to the objects within the current pluggable database (PDB).

You cannot create a Data Redaction policy for a multitenant container database (CDB). This is because the objects for which you create Data Redaction policies typically reside in a PDB. You can find all the PDBs in a CDB by querying the DBA_PDBS data dictionary view.

Oracle Data Redaction and Oracle Virtual Private Database

Oracle Virtual Private Database policies are unaffected by Oracle Data Redaction because the Virtual Private Database inline view, which contains the Virtual Private Database predicate, acts on actual values.

Oracle Data Redaction differs from Oracle Virtual Private Database in the following ways:

- Oracle Data Redaction provides more redacting features than Oracle Virtual Private Database, which only supports NULL redacting. Many applications cannot use NULL redacting, so Data Redaction is a good solution for these applications.

- Oracle Virtual Private Database policies can be static, dynamic, and context sensitive, whereas Data Redaction policies only allow static and context-sensitive policy expressions.

- Data Redaction permits only one policy to be defined on a table or view, whereas you can define multiple Virtual Private Database policies on an object.

- Data Redaction is when application users try to access an object that is protected by a Data Redaction policy using a synonym, but (unlike Oracle Virtual Private Database) Data Redaction does not support the creation of policies directly on the synonyms themselves.

Oracle Data Redaction and Oracle Database Real Application Security

Oracle Data Redaction differs from Oracle Database Real Application Security in that Real Application Security provides a comprehensive authorization framework for application security.

Column security within Real Application Security is based on application privileges that are defined by applications using the Real Application Security framework.

See Also:

Oracle Database Fusion Security Guide for information about how you can protect table columns with custom application privileges

Oracle Data Redaction and Oracle Database Vault

You can use Oracle Data Redaction in an Oracle Database Vault environment.

For example, if there is an Oracle Database Vault realm around an object, a user who does not belong to the authorized list of realm owners or participants cannot see the object data, regardless of whether the user was granted the EXEMPT REDACTION POLICY privilege. If the user attempts a DML or DDL statement on the data, error messages result.

Oracle Data Redaction and Oracle Data Pump

When you use Oracle Data Redaction with Oracle Data Pump, you must consider the impact the DATAPUMP_EXP_FULL_DATABASE role has, the ramifications of exporting objects that contain Data Redaction policies, and exporting data using the EXPDP access_method parameter.

Topics:

- Oracle Data Pump Security Model for Oracle Data Redaction

- Export of Objects That Have Oracle Data Redaction Policies Defined

- Export of Data Using the EXPDP Utility access_method Parameter

- Import of Data into Objects Protected by Oracle Data Redaction

Oracle Data Pump Security Model for Oracle Data Redaction

The DATAPUMP_EXP_FULL_DATABASE role includes the powerful EXEMPT REDACTION POLICY system privilege.

Remember that by default the DBA role is granted the DATAPUMP_EXP_FULL_DATABASE role as well as DATAPUMP_IMP_FULL_DATABASE.

This enables users who were granted these roles to be exempt from Data Redaction policies. This means that, when you export objects with Data Redaction policies defined on them, the actual data in the protected tables is copied to the Data Pump target system without being redacted. Users with these roles, including users who were granted the DBA role, are able to see the actual data in the target system.

However, by default, all of the Data Redaction policies associated with any tables and views in the Data Pump source system are also included in the export and import operation (along with the objects themselves) and applied to the objects in the target system, so the data is still redacted when users query the objects in the target system.

See Also:

"Exemption of Users from Oracle Data Redaction Policies"

Export of Objects That Have Oracle Data Redaction Policies Defined

You can export objects that have already had Oracle Data Redaction policies defined on them.

Topics:

- Finding Type Names Used by Oracle Data Pump

- Exporting Only the Data Dictionary Metadata Related to Data Redaction Policies

- Importing Objects Using the INCLUDE Parameter in IMPDP

Finding Type Names Used by Oracle Data Pump

If you want to use Oracle Data Pump to export objects that have Oracle Data Redaction policies defined on them, you first must find the type names used by Oracle Data Pump for the various data redaction data dictionary metadata types.

After you find these types, you should use these types as parameters for the INCLUDE directive to the IMPDP utility, to selectively export only metadata of these specific types to the dump file.

- To find type names, query the DATABASE_EXPORT_OBJECTS view.

For example:

SELECT OBJECT_PATH
FROM DATABASE_EXPORT_OBJECTS
WHERE OBJECT_PATH LIKE 'RADM_%';

Output similar to the following appears:

OBJECT_PATH
------------
RADM_FPTM
RADM_POLICY

Exporting Only the Data Dictionary Metadata Related to Data Redaction Policies

You can export only the data dictionary metadata that is related to data redaction policies and full redaction settings.

This kind of Data Pump export could, for example, be used if you must use the same set of Data Redaction policies and settings across development, test, and production databases. Because the flag content=metadata_only is specified, the dump file does not contain any actual data.

- To export only the data dictionary metadata related to data redaction policies and full redaction settings, enter an EXPDP utility command similar to the following:

expdp system/password \
full=y \
COMPRESSION=NONE \
content=metadata_only \
INCLUDE=RADM_FPTM,RADM_POLICY\
directory=my_directory \
job_name=my_job_name \
dumpfile=my_data_redaction_policy_metadata.dmp

See Also:

- Oracle Database Utilities for detailed information about the INCLUDE parameter of the EXPDP utility

- Oracle Database Utilities for detailed information about metadata filters

Importing Objects Using the INCLUDE Parameter in IMPDP

You can import objects using Oracle Database Pump.

- To import the objects, include these names in the INCLUDE parameter in the IMPDP utility command, based on the output from querying the OBJECT_PATH column in the DATABASE_EXPORT_OBJECTS view.

Export of Data Using the EXPDP Utility access_method Parameter

You can use Oracle Data Pump to export data from a schema that contains an object that has a Data Redaction policy.

If you are using Oracle Data Pump to perform full database export operations using the Data Pump default settings (direct_path), and if you receive error messages that you do not understand, then use this section to repeat the operation in such a way as to better understand the error.

If you try to use the Oracle Data Pump Export (EXPDP) utility with the access_method parameter set to direct_path to export data from a schema that contains an object that has a Data Redaction policy defined on it, then the following error message may appear and the export operation fails:

ORA-31696: unable to export/import TABLE_DATA:"schema.table" using client specified DIRECT_PATH method

This problem only occurs when you perform a schema-level export as a user who was not granted the EXP_FULL_DATABASE role. It does not occur during a full database export, which requires the EXP_FULL_DATABASE role. The EXP_FULL_DATABASE role includes the EXEMPT REDACTION POLICY system privilege, which bypasses Data Redaction policies.

To find the underlying problem, try the EXPDP invocation again, but do not set the access_method parameter to direct_path. Instead, use either automatic or external_table. The underlying problem could be a permissions problem, for example:

ORA-28081: Insufficient privileges - the command references a redacted object.

See Also:

Oracle Database Utilities for more information about using Data Pump Export.

Import of Data into Objects Protected by Oracle Data Redaction

If you want to use Oracle Data Pump to import data into Oracle Data Redaction-protected objects, then be careful about how you use Oracle Data Pump, so that you do not unintentionally drop the data redaction policies protecting those objects.

Consider a scenario in which the source tables that were exported using the Oracle Data Pump Export (EXPDP) utility do not have Oracle Data Redaction polices. However, the destination tables to which the data is to be imported by using Oracle Data Pump Import (IMPDP) have Oracle Data Redaction policies.

During the Data Pump import operation, the status of the Data Redaction policies on the objects being imported depends on the CONTENT option of IMPDP command.

- If you use the CONTENT=ALL or CONTENT=METADATA_ONLY option in the IMPDP command, then the Data Redaction policies on the destination tables are dropped. You must recreate the Data Redaction policies.

- If you use CONTENT=DATA_ONLY in the IMPDP command, then the Data Redaction polices on the destination tables are not dropped.

See Also:

Oracle Database Utilities for more information about using Data Pump Export

Oracle Data Redaction and Data Masking and Subsetting Pack

Oracle Enterprise Manager Data Masking and Subsetting Pack enables you to create a development or test copy of the production database, by taking the data in the production database, masking this data in bulk, and then putting the resulting masked data in the development or test copy.

You can still apply Data Redaction policies to the non-production database, in order to redact columns that contain data that was already masked by Oracle Enterprise Manager Data Masking and Subsetting Pack.

Remember that Oracle Enterprise Manager Data Masking and Subsetting Pack is used to mask data sets when you want to move the data to development and test environments. Data Redaction is mainly designed for redacting at runtime for production applications in a consistent fashion across multiple applications, without having to make application code changes.

See Also:

Oracle Database Real Application Testing User's Guide for more information about data masking and subsetting

13 Security Considerations for Using Oracle Data Redaction

Oracle provides a set of guidelines for using Oracle Data Redaction.

Topics:

- General Usage Guidelines

- Restriction of Administrative Access to Oracle Data Redaction Policies

- How Oracle Data Redaction Affects the SYS_ SYSTEM_ and Default Schemas

- Policy Expressions That Use SYS_CONTEXT Attributes

- Oracle Data Redaction Policies on Materialized Views

- Dropped Oracle Data Redaction Policies When the Recycle Bin Is Enabled

Oracle Data Redaction General Usage Guidelines

It is important to understand general guidelines for using Oracle Data Redaction.

- Oracle Data Redaction is not intended to protect against attacks by regular and privileged database users who run ad hoc queries directly against the database.

- Oracle Data Redaction is not intended to protect against users who run ad hoc SQL queries that attempt to determine the actual values by inference.

- Oracle Data Redaction relies on the database and application context values. For applications, it is the responsibility of the application to properly initialize the context value.

- Oracle Data Redaction is not enforced for users who are logged in using the SYSDBA administrative privilege.

- Certain DDL statements that attempt to copy the actual data out from under the control of a data redaction policy (that is, CREATE TABLE AS SELECT, INSERT AS SELECT) are blocked by default, but you can disable this behavior by granting the user the EXEMPT REDACTION POLICY system privilege.

- Oracle Data Redaction does not affect day-to-day database operations, such as backup and recovery, Oracle Data Pump exports and imports, Oracle Data Guard operations, and replication.

- Do not include any redacted columns in a SQL expression that is used in a GROUP BY clause in a SQL statement. Oracle does not support this behavior, and raises an ORA-00979: not a GROUP BY expression error. This happens because internally the expression in the SELECT list must be modified by Data Redaction, but this causes it to no longer be found when it comes time to process the GROUP BY clause (which is currently not updated by Data Redaction) leading to this unintended error message.

Restriction of Administrative Access to Oracle Data Redaction Policies

You can restrict the list of users who can create, view and edit Data Redaction policies by limiting who has the EXECUTE privilege on the DBMS_REDACT package and by limiting who has the SELECT privilege on the REDACTION_POLICIES and REDACTION_COLUMNS views.

You also can restrict who is exempted from redaction by limiting the EXEMPT REDACTION POLICY privilege. If you use Oracle Database Vault to restrict privileged user access, then you can use realms to restrict granting of EXEMPT REDACTION POLICY.

See Also:

- "Exemption of Users from Oracle Data Redaction Policies"

- "Oracle Data Redaction and Oracle Database Vault"

- Oracle Database Vault Administrator's Guide for more information about Oracle Database Vault

How Oracle Data Redaction Affects the SYS, SYSTEM, and Default Schemas

Both users SYS and SYSTEM automatically have the EXEMPT REDACTION POLICY system privilege.

SYSTEM has the EXP_FULL_DATABASE role, which includes the EXEMPT REDACTION POLICY system privilege.

This means that the SYS and SYSTEM users can always bypass any existing Oracle Data Redaction policies, and will always be able to view data from tables (or views) that have Data Redaction policies defined on them.

Follow these guidelines:

- Do not create Data Redaction policies on the default Oracle Database schemas, including the SYS and SYSTEM schemas.

- Be aware that granting the EXEMPT DATA REDACTION system privilege to additional roles may enable users to bypass Oracle Data Redaction, because the grantee role may have been granted to additional roles.

- Do not revoke the EXEMPT DATA REDACTION system privilege from the roles that it was granted to by default.

Policy Expressions That Use SYS_CONTEXT Attributes

Be careful when writing a policy expression that depends on a SYS_CONTEXT attribute that is populated by an application, because the application might not always populate that attribute.

If the user somehow connects directly (rather than through the application), then the SYS_CONTEXT attribute would not have been populated. If you do not handle this NULL scenario in your policy expression, you could unintentionally reveal actual data to the querying user.

For example, suppose you wanted to create a policy expression that intends to redact the query results for everyone except users who have the client identifier value of SUPERVISOR. The following expression unintentionally enables querying users who have NULL as the value for their CLIENT_IDENTIFIER to see the real data:

SYS_CONTEXT('USERENV', 'CLIENT_IDENTIFIER') IS NOT 'SUPERVISOR'

A more rigorous policy expression redacts the result of the query if the client identifier is not set, that is, it has a NULL value.

SYS_CONTEXT('USERENV', 'CLIENT_IDENTIFIER') IS NOT 'SUPERVISOR' OR IS NULL

Remember that in SQL, comparisons with NULL are undefined, and are thus FALSE, but redaction only takes place when the policy expression evaluates to TRUE.

Oracle Data Redaction Policies on Materialized Views

You can create Oracle Data Redaction policies on materialized views and on their base tables.

However, ensure that the creator of the materialized view, or the user who performs the refresh of the materialized view, is not blocked by any Data Redaction policies. In other words, the user performing the materialized view creation or refresh operations should be exempt from the Data Redaction policy. As a best practice, when you create a new materalized view, treat it as a copy of the actual table, and then create a separate Data Redaction policy to protect it.

Dropped Oracle Data Redaction Policies When the Recycle Bin Is Enabled

You should check if the recycle bin is enabled when you drop Oracle Data Redaction policies.

If you drop a table or view that has an Oracle Data Redaction policy defined on it when the recycle bin feature is enabled, and if you query the REDACTION_COLUMNS or REDACTION_POLICIES data dictionary views before you purge the recycle bin, then you will see object names such as BIN$... (for example, BIN$1Xu5PSW5VaPgQxGS5AoAEA==$0).

This is normal behavior. These policies are removed when you purge the recycle bin.

To find if the recycle bin is enabled, you can run the SHOW PARAMETER RECYCLEBIN command in SQL*Plus.

See Also:

Oracle Database Administrator's Guide for information about purging objects from the recycle bin

Glossary

actual data

In Oracle Data Redaction, the data in a protected table or view. An example of actual data could be the number 123456789, and the redacted data version of this number could be 999996789.

auto-login software keystore

A software keystore that is protected by a system-generated password and does not need to be explicitly opened by a security administrator. Auto-login software keystores are automatically opened when accessed and can be used on any computer that runs an Oracle database. For example, consider an Oracle RAC environment that has four nodes, and each node is on a different computer. This environment uses an auto-login keystore. When a REKEY operation is performed on node 1, the auto-login and password-based keystores must be copied to the computers that host nodes 2, 3, and 4. In this configuration, the auto-login keystores will be opened on all four nodes when required.

See also local auto-login software keystore.

cipher suite

A set of authentication, encryption, and data integrity algorithms used to exchange messages between network nodes using Secure Sockets Layer (SSL). During an SSL handshake, for example, the two nodes negotiate to see which cipher suite they will use when transmitting messages back and forth.

ciphertext

Message text that has been encrypted.

See also encrypted text.

data redaction

The ability to mask data with different values in real time, that is, at the moment a user tries to access the data. You can mask all of the data, a partial subset of the data, or display random values in place of the data. It does not change the actual data in the database.

decryption

The process of converting an encrypted message (the ciphertext), back to its original message (plaintext).

encrypted text

Text that has been encrypted, using an encryption algorithm and an encryption key; the output stream of an encryption process. The text is not readable or decipherable, without decrypting it first. Also called ciphertext.

encryption

The process of converting an original message (plaintext) to an encrypted message (ciphertext).

hardware keystore

A container that stores a Transparent Data Encryption key for a hardware security module.

hardware security module

A physical device that provides secure storage for encryption keys.

inference

A query that is designed to find data by repeatedly trying queries. For example, to find the users who earn the highest salaries, an intruder could use the following query:

SELECT FIRST_NAME, LAST_NAME, SALARY FROM HR.EMPLOYEES WHERE SALARY > 16000 ORDER BY SALARY DESC;

FIRST_NAME           LAST_NAME                     SALARY
-------------------- ------------------------- ----------
Steven               King                           24000
Neena                Kochhar                        17000
Lex                  De Haan                        17000

key pair

A public key and its associated private key. See public and private key pair.

keystore

A container that stores a Transparent Data Encryption key and other encrypted data. In previous releases, this container was referred to as a wallet.

See also auto-login software keystore, hardware keystore, and local auto-login software keystore.

local auto-login software keystore

A software keystore that is local and restricted to the computer on which it was created.

See also auto-login software keystore.

mask

The ability to redact data from a user or an application.

password-based software keystore

A software keystore that must be opened with a password before it can be accessed.

See also keystore.

plaintext

Message text that has not been encrypted.

private key

In public-key cryptography, this key is the private key that is known only to its owner. It is primarily used for encrypting message digests used with digital signatures.

See public and private key pair.

public key

One of two keys that are used in public key cryptography, the other key being the private key. In typical public key cryptography usage, the public key is used to encrypt data or verify digital signatures. The the private key is used to decrypt data or generate digital signatures. The public key, unlike the private key, can be made available to anyone whereas the private key must remain secret.

See public and private key pair.

public key encryption

The process where the sender of a message encrypts the encryption key of the recipient. Upon delivery, the message is decrypted by the recipient using its private key.

public and private key pair

A set of two related numbers used for encryption and decryption, where one is called the private key and the other is called the public key. Public keys are typically made widely available, while private keys are held by their respective owners. Data encrypted with either a public key or a private key from a key pair can be decrypted with its associated key from the key pair.

public key infrastructure (PKI)

Information security technology utilizing the principles of public key cryptography. Public key cryptography involves encrypting and decrypting information using a shared public and private key pair. Provides for secure, private communications within a public network.

redacted data

Masked data that is displayed to the querying user. For example, if the actual data is 3714-4963-5398-4321, then the redacted data could appear, depending on the Data Redaction policy, as XXXX-XXXX-XXXX-4321.

salt

In cryptography, a way to strengthen the security of encrypted data. Salt is a random string that is added to the data before it is encrypted, making it more difficult for attackers to steal the data by matching patterns of ciphertext to known ciphertext samples. Salt is often also added to passwords, before the passwords are hashed, to avoid dictionary attacks, a method that attackers use to determine sensitive passwords. The addition of salt to a password before hashing makes it more difficult for intruders to match the hash values (sometimes called verifiers) with their dictionary list of common password hash values, because they do not know the salt beforehand.

software keystore

A container that stores a Transparent Data Encryption a TDE master encryption key for use as an auto-login software keystore, a local auto-login software keystore, or a password-based software keystore.

tablespace encryption key

An encryption key a tablespace. The TDE tablespace encryption key encrypts the tablespace encryption key, which in turn encrypts and decrypts data in the tablespace.

TDE master encryption key

A key that is stored within a software keystore or a hardware keystore. For table encryption, this key encrypts the TDE table key, and for tablespace encryption, it encrypts the tablespace encryption key.

See also keystore.

TDE table key

An encryption key that is associated with a table whose columns are marked for encryption. The TDE master encryption key encrypts this table encryption key.

wallet

A data structure used to store and manage security credentials for an individual entity. A Wallet Resource Locator (WRL) provides all of the necessary information to locate the wallet. For Transparent Data Encryption in Oracle Database Release 12c and later, the term for wallet is keystore.

wallet obfuscation

The ability to store and access an Oracle wallet without querying the user for a password before access (supports single sign-on (SSO)).

Wallet Resource Locator (WRL)

A tool that provides all of the necessary information to locate a wallet. It is a path to an operating system directory that contains a wallet.

Index

A  C  D  E  G  H  I  K  M  N  O  P  R  S  T  U  V  X

A

- about managing [1]

- ad hoc tools

- Oracle Data Redaction [1]

- administrative access to policies, restricting [1]

- aggregate functions

- affect on Data Redaction policy optimization [1]

- ALTER SYSTEM statement

- how compares with ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement [1]

- APEX_UTIL.GET_NUMERIC_SESSION_STATE function

- Oracle Data Redaction policies (NV public function) [1]

- APEX_UTIL.GET_SESSION_STATE function

- Oracle Data Redaction policies (V public function) [1]

- applications

- database applications and Oracle Data Redaction [1]

- modifying to use Transparent Data Encryption [1]

- auto login keystores

- and Transparent Data Encryption (TDE) [1]

C

- CDBs

- Data Redaction masking policies [1]

- PDBs with encrypted data [1]

- TDE operations in root [1]

- TDE operations in root and PDBs [1]

- change data capture, synchronous [1]

- closing hardware keystores [1]

- closing software keystores [1]

- column encryption

- about [1]

- changing algorithm [1]

- changing encryption key [1]

- creating encrypted table column with default algorithm [1]

- creating encrypted table column with non-default algorithm [1]

- creating index on encrypted column [1]

- data types to encrypt [1]

- existing tables

- about [1]

- adding encrypted column to [1]

- disabling encryption [1]

- encrypting unencrypted column [1]

- external tables [1]

- incompatibilities [1]

- limitations [1]

- performance, optimum [1]

- restrictions [1]

- salt [1]

- security considerations [1]

- skipping integrity check [1]

- compliance

- Transparent Data Encryption [1]

- compression of Transparent Data Encryption data [1]

- configuring software keystores

- creating local auto-login keystore [1]

D

- data at rest [1]

- database roles

- Data Redaction policies [1]

- data deduplication of Transparent Data Encryption data [1]

- data redaction

- See: Oracle Data Redaction

- data storage

- Transparent Data Encryption [1]

- DDL statements

- Oracle Data Redaction policies [1]

- DML statements

- Oracle Data Redaction policies [1]

E

- editing custom formats [1]

- editing policies [1]

- Editions

- Transparent Data Encryption [1]

- encryption [1]

- See also: Transparent Data Encryption (TDE)

- EXEMPT REDACTION POLICY privilege

- using with Database Vault [1]

G

- guidelines

- ad hoc query attacks and Data Redaction [1]

- application context value handling by Data Redaction policies [1]

- day-to-day operations and Data Redaction [1]

- DDL statements and Data Redaction policies [1]

- exhaustive SQL queries and inference and Data Redaction [1]

- materialized views and Data Redaction [1]

- recycle bin and Data Redaction [1]

- SYS_CONTEXT values and Data Redaction [1]

H

- hardware keystores

- backing up [1]

- closing [1]

- hardware security modules

- backing up keystores [1]

I

- import/export utilities, original [1]

- indexes

- creating on encrypted column [1]

- index range scans [1]

- inline views

- Data Redaction policies order of redaction [1]

- Data Redaction redaction [1]

- intruders

- ad hoc query attacks [1]

K

- keystores

- about [1]

- architecture [1]

- ASM-based [1]

- auto login [1]

- backing up password-based software keystores

- about [1]

- backup identifier rules [1]

- procedure [1]

- changing hardware keystore password [1]

- changing passwords for password-based software keystores [1]

- closing hardware keystores [1]

- closing software keystores [1]

- deleting [1]

- hardware keystore

- configuration process [1]

- master encryption key merge differing from import or export [1]

- merging

- about [1]

- auto-login into password-based [1]

- one into another existing keystore [1]

- reversing merge operation [1]

- two into a third new keystore [1]

- migrating

- creating master encryption key for hardware keystore-based encryption [1]

- hardware keystore to software keystore [1]

- keystore order after migration [1]

- password key into hardware keystore [1]

- migration using Oracle Key Vault [1]

- moving software keystore to a new location [1]

- opening hardware keystores [1]

- opening software keystores [1]

- Oracle Database secrets

- about [1]

- storing in hardware keystore [1]

- storing in software keystore [1]

- using auto-login hardware keystore [1]

- keystores, software

- configuration process [1]

M

- masking

- See: Oracle Data Redaction

- master encryption key

- See: TDE master encryption key

- materialized views

- Data Redaction guideline [1]

- Transparent Data Encryption tablespace encryption [1]

- multitenant container databases

- See: CDBs

N

- nested functions

- Data Redaction policies order of redaction [1]

- NV public function (APEX_UTIL.GET_NUMERIC_SESSION_STATE function), Data Redaction policies [1]

O

- OLS_LABEL_DOMINATES public function

- Data Redaction policies [1]

- opening hardware keystores [1]

- opening software keystores [1]

- ORA-00979

- not a GROUP BY expression error [1]

- ORA-28081

- Insufficient privileges - the command references a redacted object error [1]

- Oracle Application Express

- filtering using by session state in Data Redaction policies [1]

- Oracle Call Interface

- Transparent Data Encryption [1]

- Oracle Database Real Application Security

- Data Redaction [1]

- Oracle Database Vault

- using with Data Redaction [1]

- Oracle Data Guard

- Transparent Data Encryption [1]

- Oracle Data Pump

- encrypted columns [1]

- encrypted data [1]

- encrypted data with dump sets [1]

- exported data from Data Redaction policies [1]

- exporting Oracle Data Redaction objects [1]

- imported data from Data Redaction policies [1]

- Oracle Data Redaction security policy [1]

- Oracle Data Redaction

- about [1] , [2]

- ad hoc tools [1]

- aggregate functions [1]

- benefits [1]

- CDBs [1]

- creating custom format [1]

- database applications [1]

- DBMS_REDACT.ADD_POLICY procedure

- using [1]

- DBMS_REDACT.ALTER_POLICY procedure

- about [1]

- example [1]

- parameters required for various actions [1]

- syntax [1]

- DBMS_REDACT.DISABLE_POLICY

- about [1]

- example [1]

- syntax [1]

- DBMS_REDACT.DROP_POLICY

- about [1]

- examples [1]

- syntax [1]

- DBMS_REDACT.ENABLE_POLICY

- about [1]

- example [1]

- syntax [1]

- DBMS_REDACT.UPDATE_FULL_REDACTION_VALUES procedure

- about [1]

- syntax [1]

- using [1]

- deleting policies [1]

- editing custom format [1]

- editions [1]

- Enterprise Manager Cloud Control [1] , [2] , [3] , [4] , [5] , [6]

- exporting data using Data Pump Export [1]

- exporting objects using Data Pump [1]

- full data redaction

- about [1]

- creating policy for [1]

- examples [1]

- modifying default value [1]

- syntax [1]

- how differs from Oracle Database Real Application Security masking [1]

- how differs from Oracle Virtual Private Database masking [1]

- importing data using Data Pump Export [1]

- inline views order of redaction [1]

- managing policies [1]

- nested functions order of redaction [1]

- no data redaction

- about [1] , [2]

- creating policies for [1]

- example [1]

- syntax [1]

- Oracle Data Pump security policy [1]

- Oracle Enterprise Manager Data Masking and Subsetting Pack [1]

- partial data redaction

- about [1]

- character types, policies for [1]

- data-time data types [1]

- example using character data type [1]

- example using data-time data type [1]

- example using fixed character format [1]

- example using number data type [1]

- formats, fixed character [1]

- number data types [1]

- syntax [1]

- privileges for creating policies [1]

- random data redaction

- about [1]

- creating policies for [1]

- example [1]

- randomized data redaction

- about [1]

- regular expression data redaction

- creating policies for [1]

- custom, creating policies for [1]

- example [1]

- example of custom [1]

- formats [1]

- formats, creating policies for [1]

- settings for [1]

- syntax [1]

- regular expression redaction

- about [1]

- SYS schema objects [1]

- SYSTEM schema objects [1]

- use cases [1]

- viewing custom format [1]

- when to use [1]

- WHERE clause redaction [1]

- workflow [1]

- Oracle Data Redaction:Enterprise Manager Cloud Control [1]

- Oracle Data RedactionEnterprise Manager Cloud Control

- deleting custom format [1]

- Oracle Data Redaction formats

- :about managing in Cloud Control [1]

- :viewing in Cloud Control [1]

- creating in Cloud Control [1]

- deleting in Cloud Control [1]

- editing in Cloud Control [1]

- sensitive column types [1]

- Oracle Data Redaction partial redaction

- creating policies for [1] , [2]

- Oracle Data Redaction policies

- about [1]

- altering [1]

- building reports [1]

- creating

- examples [1]

- general syntax [1]

- procedure [1]

- creating in Cloud Control [1]

- deleting in Cloud Control [1]

- disabling [1]

- disabling in Cloud Control [1]

- dropping [1]

- editing in Cloud Control [1]

- effect on view chain [1]

- enabling [1]

- exempting users from [1]

- expressions

- by Application Express session state [1]

- by database role [1]

- by OLS label dominance [1]

- by user environment [1]

- filtering users

- about [1]

- no filtering [1]

- finding information about [1]

- Oracle Enterprise Manager Cloud Control [1]

- redacting multiple columns in one policy [1]

- viewing in Cloud Control [1]

- Oracle Enterprise Manager Cloud Control

- creating custom formats [1]

- creating policies [1]

- disabling policies [1]

- Oracle Data Redaction [1] , [2] , [3] , [4] , [5] , [6]

- viewing details of a policy [1]

- viewing formats [1]

- Oracle Enterprise Manager Data Masking and Subsetting Pack

- Oracle Data Redaction impact [1]

- Oracle GoldenGate

- storing secrets in Oracle keystores [1]

- Oracle Key Vault

- migration of keystores [1]

- Oracle Real Application Clusters

- non-shared file systems to store TDE keystores [1]

- Transparent Data Encryption [1]

- Oracle Recovery Manager

- Transparent Data Encryption [1]

- Oracle Securefiles

- Transparent Data Encryption [1]

- Oracle Virtual Private Database (VPD)

- Data Redaction [1]

- orapki utility

- how compares with ADMINISTER KEY MANAGEMENT statement [1]

- original import/export utilities [1]

P

- PDBs

- Data Redaction policies [1]

- finding TDE keystore status for all PDBs [1]

- master encryption keys

- exporting [1]

- importing [1]

- Transparent Data Encryption [1]

- performance

- Transparent Data Encryption [1]

- PKI encryption

- backup and recovery operations [1]

- hardware keystores [1]

- master encryption key [1]

- tablespace encryption [1]

- pluggable databases

- See: PDBs

R

- recycle bin

- Data Redaction policies and [1]

- reports

- based Data Redaction policies [1]

- rotating

- master encryption key [1]

S

- salt

- removing [1]

- salt (TDE)

- adding [1]

- secrets

- storing Oracle Database secrets in keystore

- about [1]

- storing in hardware keystore [1]

- storing in software keystore [1]

- SecureFiles

- Transparent Data Encryption [1]

- sensitive column types [1]

- synchronous change data capture [1]

- SYS_CONTEXT function

- Data Redaction policies [1]

- SYS_SESSION_ROLES namespace used in Data Redaction [1]

- SYS_SESSION_ROLES SYS_CONTEXT namespace

- Data Redaction [1]

- SYSTEM user

- Data Redaction policies [1]

- SYS user

- Data Redaction policies [1]

T

- tablespace encryption

- about [1]

- architecture [1]

- creating encrypted tablespaces [1]

- examples [1]

- incompatibilities [1]

- opening keystore [1]

- performance, optimum [1]

- performance overhead [1]

- procedure [1]

- restrictions [1]

- security considerations for plaintext fragments [1]

- setting tablespace key [1]

- storage overhead [1]

- tablespace master encryption key

- setting [1]

- TDE

- See: Transparent Data Encryption (TDE)

- TDE master encryption keys

- about use in keystore [1]

- activating

- about [1]

- example [1]

- procedure [1]

- architecture [1]

- attributes [1]

- creating for later use

- about [1]

- examples [1]

- procedure [1]

- custom attribute tags

- about [1]

- creating [1]

- exporting [1]

- exporting in PDBs [1]

- finding currently used key [1]

- importing [1]

- importing in PDBs [1]

- keystore merge differing from import or export [1]

- resetting in keystore [1]

- rotating [1]

- setting in keystore [1]

- Transparent Data Encryption (TDE)

- about [1]

- benefits [1]

- CDBs

- operations in root or PDBs [1]

- column encryption

- about [1] , [2]

- adding encrypting column to existing table [1]

- changing algorithm [1]

- changing encryption key [1]

- creating encrypted column in external table [1]

- creating index on encrypted column [1]

- creating tables with default encryption algorithm [1]

- creating tables with non-default encryption algorithm [1]

- data types supported [1]

- disabling encryption in existing column [1]

- encrypting columns in existing tables [1]

- encrypting existing column [1]

- encryption and integrity algorithms [1]

- restrictions [1]

- salt in encrypted columns [1]

- compatibility with application software [1]

- compatibility with Oracle Database tools [1]

- compression of encrypted data [1]

- configuring hardware keystores

- about [1]

- configuration step [1]

- opening [1]

- PKCS#11 library [1]

- reconfiguring software keystore [1]

- setting master encryption key [1]

- sqlnet.ora configuration [1]

- configuring software keystores

- about [1]

- creating auto-login keystore [1]

- creating password-based keystore [1]

- opening keystores [1]

- setting software master encryption key [1]

- sqlnet.ora file configuration [1]

- data deduplication of encrypted data [1]

- editions [1]

- encryption and integrity algorithms [1]

- finding information about [1]

- frequently asked questions [1]

- incompatibilities [1]

- keystore management

- ASM-based keystore [1]

- backing up password-based software keystores [1]

- changing hardware keystore password [1]

- changing password-based software keystore password [1]

- closing hardware keystores [1]

- closing software keystore [1]

- master encryption key attributes [1]

- merging keystores, about [1]

- merging keystores, auto-login into password-based [1]

- merging keystores, one into an existing [1]

- merging keystores, reversing merge operation [1]

- merging keystores, two into a third new keystore [1]

- migrating password key and hardware keystore, master encryption key creation [1]

- migrating password key and hardware keystore, reverse migration [1]

- migrating password key and hardware keystore, sqlnet.ora configuration [1]

- keystores

- about [1]

- benefits [1]

- types [1]

- master encryption key

- rotating [1]

- master encryption key attributes

- about [1]

- creating custom tags [1]

- master encryption keys

- exporting and importing [1]

- resetting in keystore [1]

- setting in keystore, about [1]

- setting in keystore procedure [1]

- modifying applications for use with [1]

- multidatabase environments [1]

- Oracle Call Interface [1]

- Oracle Data Guard [1]

- Oracle Data Pump

- export and import operations on dump sets [1]

- export and import operations on encrypted columns [1]

- Oracle Data Pump export and import operations

- about [1]

- Oracle Real Application Clusters

- about [1]

- non-shared file systems to store keystores [1]

- Oracle Recovery Manager

- keystores [1]

- PDBs

- about [1]

- finding keystore status for all PDBs [1]

- operations in root [1]

- performance

- database workloads [1]

- decrypting entire data set [1]

- optimum [1]

- worst case scenario [1]

- performance overheads

- about [1]

- typical [1]

- PKI encryption [1]

- privileges required [1]

- SecureFiles [1]

- security considerations

- column encryption [1]

- general advice [1]

- platintext fragments [1]

- storage overhead [1]

- storing Oracle GoldenGate secrets [1]

- tablespace encryption

- about [1] , [2]

- creating [1]

- encryption and integrity algorithms [1]

- examples [1]

- opening keystore [1]

- restrictions [1]

- setting master encryption key [1]

- tablespace encryption, setting with COMPATIBLE parameter [1]

- views [1]

- Transparent Data Encryption (TDE)integrity

- column encryption

- creating tables without integrity checks (NOMAC) [1]

- improving performance [1]

- NOMAC parameter (TDE) [1]

- Transparent Data Encryption (TDE) keystores

- deleting [1]

- moving software keystore to a new location [1]

- transportable tablespaces [1]

U

- utilities, import/export [1]

V

- V$ENCRYPTION_WALLET view

- keystore order after migration [1]

- views

- Data Redaction [1]

- V public function (APEX_UTIL.GET_SESSION_STATE function), Data Redaction policies [1]

X

- XML generation [1]

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